Blog contain list of famous person and their achievement in respective field.
(1)Galileo Galliee
(1564-1642)
INVENTOR OF THE TELESCOPE
Galileo was an experimental scientist par excellence! He
proved that the time taken for one oscillation of a pendulum depends only on
length of the pendulum. He was the first to observe that any object released
from a height was subject to the same acceleration, and was keen to observe
that an object travelling on an extremely smooth surface maintains its speed.
However, his fame spread across the globe for his invention
of the telescope. He was the first to observe the four large moons of Jupiter
and noticed that they went round the planet. He was the first man to see
sunspots and the phases of venus. All these observations led him to conclude
that planets went round the sun.
Galileo constructed, not one but two hundred telescopes and
donated them to various educational institutes for astronomical observations.
He wrote in his book in Italian so that his countrymen would understand him.
Since his views contradicted those of the church, Galileo suffered the torture
of an inquisition.
Galileo was a great exponent of scientific temper. He held,
‘In questions of science, the authority of thousand is not worth the humble
reasoning of a single individual.’ Galileos rightly called the father of modern
science.
(2)Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723)
INVENTOR OF THE MICROSCOPE
INVENTOR OF THE MICROSCOPE
LEEUWENHOEK was more interested in his hobby of grinding
transparent glass to obtain lenses of various shape than in running the cloth
shop of his of his family. One day he was started to notice that two lenses
held at a specific distance from one another enabled him to see extremely small
objects clearly. This was the birth of microscope.
This was not a mere toy. LEUWENHOEK’s microscope opened the
doors to a new world. He saw on a speck of dust or in a drop of water countless
small organisms moving and darting around. Surely the dutch investigator had
seen a new living world. What was once thought to be inanimate was seen to
house of large number of small organisms.
Like a true scientist, LEEUWENHOEK wrote lengthy letters to
the royal society of England describing all the details of these living micro
organisms. He missed no detail. Indeed, the world came to know about the new
world mainly through the detailed letters of LEEUWENHOEK. One can say that two
of his rare qualities have laid the foundation of microbiology that ultimately
paved the way to the prosperous biotechnology of today. One is his intense
curiosity and second is his tenacity of writing detailed reports.
(3)Sir William
Harvey
(1578-1657)
DISCOVERED THE PROCESS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
ALL of us have seen how blood comes out when we suffer a
wound. But do we know how this blood is held inside our body, how it keeps
flowing inside and how it is supplied to different organs of our body? Clear
answers to these questions were not known four hundred years ago, until a
British medical scientist, William Harvey, conducted a series of experiments
and published in 1628 his conclusions were not restricted to simple statements
like blood flows through vessels inside the body. He discovered the entire
process of blood circulation, which takes place in two steps. Blood flows from
the heart to the lungs where it is purified and comes back to the heart. It is
then carried to different organs through a network of arteries. Harvey’s
discovery is extremely important from two points of view. Apart from describing
the entire process, it enabled medical science to understand the various
disease and malfunctioning of blood vessels and discover ways to treat them.
Historians say that an Arab doctor, Ibne-Al-Naffis
(1205-1288)
had also come to similar conclusions. However, he was not
given the credit for discovering blood circulation since his findings did not
reach Europe.
(4)Gregor Mendel
(1822-1854)
FATHER OF MODERN GENETICS
GREGOR Mendel was not known for his academic brilliance. He
tried his hands at several occupations until he landed in Bruno Austria. Here,
in rural obscurity he could use the excellent gardens and try his hand at
horticulture. Indeed, Mendel played for seven years with plants of peas. He
crossed tall, dwarf, several colours, and studied twenty eight thousand plants
and recorded his observations.
How are characteristics transmitted from one generation to
the next? Mendel noticed that there is a specific factor governing each
quality. These factors, which we now call genes, can’t be mixed like we mix
colours. They not only maintain their independence, but dominant ones always
shoe their effect while the weak ones lay dormant in the company of dominant
ones. This was the beginning of genetics.
All this was in 1866. Mendel’s study remained undiscovered
for thirty four years. Even when it was discovered, no one took note of it for
two more decades. Only when it was discovered that Mendel’s findings lend
strong support to Darwin’s theory of evolution, Mendel and his observation on
genetics came in limelight. It is now accepted that Mendel is the father of
modern genetics.
(5)Sir Alexander
Fleming
(1881-1955)
DISCOVERED THE CURATIVE DRUG OF PENICILLIN
IT was known around a hundred years ago that bacteria cause
several diseases. However, no one knew how to destroy these bacteria and
control diseases. The onset of an epidemic like plague or cholera was truly
dreaded and controlling such diseases remained a challenge. It was the British
scientist, Alexander Fleming, who met this challenge.
Fleming was experimenting on bacteria in his laboratory.
While growing cultures of bacteria in dishes, he noticed that the growth of
certain moulds arrested the growth of bacteria. In 1928 he isolated certain
chemicals from this mould and demonstrated their use in killing bacteria. The
mould Fleming used was a strain of the fungus penicillium and he named the
chemicals secreted by this mould ‘penicillin’.
However, this penicillin thus obtained by fleming was not
stable, and hence could not be used as medicine, This task was taken up by
Howard Flory (Australia) and Ernst Chain(Germany). They eventually succeeded in
stabilizing the structure of penicillin. Their work proved the importance of
Fleming’s original discovery. Penicillin is one of the most useful drugs known
to man. They together shared the Nobel Prize in 1945 “for the discovery of
penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases.”
(6)Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen
(1845-1923)
DISCOVERED X-RAYS
X-rays pictures are used quite commonly to locate bone
fracture and also to see the extent of injury. Today, trained radiologists are
able to detect patches in the chest, ulcers in intestines, stones in the kidney
etc. these powerful rays where discovered by the German scientist Rontgen.
Rontgen was studying passage of electricity in cathode ray tubes, when he
observed that a piece of barium platinocyanide kept nearby glowed when the tube
was in operation. He attributed this to some unknown radiation emitted by the
cathode ray tube, which struck the barium platinocyanide screen and caused the
fluorescence. Rontgen experimented and found that these rays were electric
magnetic radiation, powerful enough to pass through light material like paper,
wood and tissue. Curiously enough, x-rays are useful tools in areas other than
medical diagnosis. For example, X-rays are used in studying the structure of
crystals, and even to study the structure of molecules. The discovery of
Rontgen saw the emergence of a new branch of physics called X-ray spectroscopy,
which has enabled the study of giant biological molecules. Rontgen was awarded
the Nobel prize in 1901.
(7)Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
DISCOVERED THE CONDITIONED REFLEX
HUNGER and eating food are experiences so common that we
hardly think about them. The secretion of saliva in the mouth is also taken for
granted. However, the Russian scientist Ivan Petrovic Pavlov demonstrated that
a large number of activities controlled by the brain are involved in this
seemingly simple process. Pavlov’s experiment was simple. He demonstrated that
if a bell is sounded whenever a dog is given food, his mouth secrets saliva at
the sound of the bell. Even if there is no food, the dog salivates at the sound
of the bell. This experiment shows that actions like digestion of blood depend
not only on bio-chemical activities like secretion of digestive juices, but
also on the brain! Pavlov called this behaviour ‘conditioned reflex’ and the
process of learning it ‘conditioning’. Pavlov clinched the issue further by
showing that a dog shows no response to food it has never seen before.
Pavlov showed that “conditioned reflex” is governed by the
brain and is, therefore, seen only in higher animals with a developed brain.
Pavlov’s theory has considerable influence on our understanding of the nervous
system. Moreover, it has wide spread applications in psychology and education.
He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1904.
(8)Jerald Edelman
(1929-2014)
DISCOVERED THE STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODIES
NATURE has bestowed on us two defence mechanisms to protect
ourselves from disease-causing bacteria. One is the lymph cells found in blood
and in some glands, and the other is antibodies generated by lymph cells. While
it was broadly known that antibodies are proteins of some kind, their precise
structure was yet to be discovered.
We know that proteins are chains of amino acids. It was felt
that all one needs to do is to determine the sequence of these amino acids.
Prof Porter was one of the leading scientists to hold this view. However, the
American scientist Edelman conducted some delicate experiments to show that
these antibodies contain not one but two chains of amino acids. One of them is
long and heavy, while the other is shorter and lighter. This opened a new way
looking at antibiotics. Later, Porter was able to show that antibiotics contain
two such pairs entangled in each other!
These researches threw considerable light on the structure
of antibodies and enabled us to understand how they protect us from bacteria.
Even more importantly, these findings paved the way for organ transplants!
Edelman and Porter shared the Nobel prize in 1972 for their painstaking work.
(9)Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727)
DISCOVERED GRAVITY AND THE LAWS OF MOTION
MENTION Newton and we reminded of gravitation. However, this
great British scientist has contributed substantially to many branches of mathematics
and physics, both theoretical and experimental. Apart from this famous three
laws of motion, he proved that sunlight consists of seven colors. Much of
classical physics today and almost all of engineering rests firmly on the
discoveries of Newton. Newton postulated that any two objects attract each
other. This seemingly simple postulate enabled him to explain why an object
thrown up falls down and also to understand the motion of planets and
satellites. The greatness of Newton is that he made his statements in the form
of mathematical equations enabling him to make precise and verifiable
predictions. Newton lived in an era when the mathematics needed for physical
predictions had yet to be developed. Newton did all this work himself! He
discovered calculus. He also discovered the binomial theorem. Newton is unique
in the sense that he discovered both physics and all the tools necessary for
his discoveries. He was remarkably modest despite his achievements. “If I have
seen a little more than the others it is only because I could stand on the
shoulders of my predecessors,” he said.
(10)Robert Koch
(1843-1910)
FATHER OF THE SCIENCE OF BACTERIOLOGY
WE know that bacteria cause epidemics. However, hundred
years ago one knew little about these bacteria, and even less about how they
were able to spread the deadly epidemics. Remember, the powerful microscopes
and other techniques of today were not available then. Despite these
limitations, Robert Koch, the German bacteriologist, using simple equipment
discovered the bacteria that cause anthrax, cholera and tuberculosis.
He was the first to isolate and study bacteria that cause
T.B. He was able to develop colonies of these bacteria outside the human body
and was able to show that an animal infected by them developed the same
disease. This is the famous Koch’s postulate. In simple language, it means that
specific organisms have to be present in every case of that when introduced
into a healthy subject the organisms produces the same disease. This postulate
forms the basis diagnosis T.B. In fact, T.B. is also known as Koch’s disease.
Robert Koch used extremely simple equipment to establish the
basis of bacteriology. No wonder he is known as the father of the science
bacteriology. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1905.
(11)Bhise Shankar Abaji
(1867-1935)
INDIAN EDISON OF PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
PRINTING technology originated in China four centuries ago.
But the early models were primitive, requiring each character to be cast and
composed. Until 150 years ago, the printing process was so slow that only 150
characters could be composed per minute. Realising the helplessness of
engineers in improving these machines, a leading English company invited
engineers from all over the world to take up this challenge. Bhise accepted the
challenge. He succeeded in inventing a machine capable of composing 1,200
characters in a minute. “Scientific American,” a prestigious American
periodical, took note of Bhise’s achievement. Bhise improved it even further,
inventing a later version of capable of composing 3,000 characters per minute.
Later, he invented the automatic model. Bhise won 40 patents in printing
technology. He established a company in the U.S.A. to manufacture printing
machines and supplied them the world over.
Having made his imprint on printing technology, he turned on
pharmaceuticals. One of his medicines as widely used by then U.S Army in the
First World War. His inventions were so many, and in such diverse fields, that
American technologies referred to him as the ‘Indian Edison.’
(12)Edward Jenner
(1749-1823)
HE SAVED HUMANITY FROM SMALL POX
THE smallpox epidemic was rampant all over the world,
especially in Europe, in the eighteenth century. Edward Jenner, a British
physician, was worried about his helplessness in curing small pox patients. But
he was a great observer. He had noticed that the incidence of smallpox was very
low in milkmen who had once suffered from cowpox. Jenner wondered about the
possible connection.
He decided to study cowpox, which is relatively mild
disease. He extracted some liquid from a blister on the udder of a cow
suffering from cowpox and injected it into a boy. The boy did suffer from
fever, but was promptly cured. Jenner then conducted a truly brave experiment.
He extracted some liquid from a blister of a smallpox patient and injected it
into this boy. The boy did not suffer! He had acquired immunity from smallpox!
Jenner then used this method to protect his patients from smallpox.
These findings led to a method of preparing a vaccine
against contagious diseases caused by bacteria, giving mankind immunity against
these diseases. Today, smallpox is totally eradicated. The credit goes to
Jenner. Two of his exceptional qualities, his keen observations and his
willingness to take risk, have saved the world.
(13)Louis Pasteur
(1822-1895)
HE MADE THE 'WHITE REVOLUTION' POSSIBLE
THAT bacteria spread contagious diseases was known by now.
But it was the French chemist Louis Pasteur who discovered that bacteria have
other roles to play. They also spoil wines and milk! Pasteur did not stop at
that. He invented methods to destroy most of these bacteria so that materials
like milk and wines could be preserved for a longer time.
It is common experience that boiling milk kills several
bacteria so that milk lasts longer. Pasteur discovered that if milk is heated
at 72 degree C and chilled within seconds to 10 degree C, and if this process
is repeated several times, most of the bacteria are killed without destroying
the useful ingredients in milk. This process is known as ‘Pasteurisation’. In
some countries milk is raised to 132 degree C for a few seconds to preserve it
for a longer period. It is this procedure of preserving milk that has made the
White Revolution or ‘Operation Flood’, as it known in India, possible,
preventing the wastage of milk and ensuring its easy availability round the
year. Pasteur studied fermentation as a chemical process. He is credited with
having discovered the microbes responsible for diphtheria, cholera and those
thriving on silk worms. He also discovered vaccines for rabies and anthrax.
Pasteur was considerably interested in mathematics, besides being an
accomplished painter.
(14)Joseph Lister
(1837-1912)
HE MADE SURGICAL OPERATION ASEPTIC AND SAFE
AFTER administering of anaesthesia gained acceptance nearly
150 years ago, an increasingly large
number of patients began undergoing surgery. However, nearly 50 per cent of
them died during the post-operative period. The operations were successful, but
the internal and external wounds soon became septic, taking a heavy toll.
Joseph Lister, a British surgeon, believed this to be due to lack of
cleanliness in the operation theatre.
Lister noticed something strange. Carbolic acid was used
freely to lower the stench from open gutters. Believing that the effect was due
to carbolic acid which killed the bacteria responsible for the stench, he began
spraying it in his operation theatre. By this time, news of Pasteur’s discovery
in France that bacteria cause contagious diseases had reached England. Fortified
in the belief, Lister now cleaned his hands, surgical instruments and even
wounds with carbolic acid. He even advocated this method to his colleagues.
They all opposed him in the beginning. But Lister’s method increased the
survival rate from 50 to 90 per cent and soon gained acceptance. Among the
several beneficiaries was her majesty Queen Victoria who made him a peer!
(15)Sir Frederick Banting
(1891-1941)
AN ORTHOPAEDIC WHO DISCOVERED INSULIN
WE know that lack of insulin causes diabetes. Insulin is
normally prepared in the pancreas and circulated in blood. If, however, for
some reason, insulin is not prepared in sufficient quantities in the pancreas,
the patient suffers from diabetes. Before the discovery of insulin, there was
no treatment for diabetes, except regulating the sugar intake, and severe cases
invariably went into coma and often ended in death. Insulin was discovered by
Banting, a Canadian surgeon, and his co-workers. Pancreatic ducts of dogs were
tied for a few weeks, and it was demonstrated that insulin was prepared in the
‘Islets of Langerhans,’ a group of cells located in the pancreas. He also
succeeded in isolating insulin. Diabetic patients treated with insulin felt
fresh as never before. Their wounds were healed quickly as in a normal person.
Indeed, they got a new lease of life!
Banting completed all this work in just eight months in an
astonishingly simple laboratory. In fact, some scientists could not accept that
such important work could be done in such primitive laboratory. Banting also
had a large heart. He openly acknowledged the contributions of Macleod and Best
and insisted on sharing the 1923 Nobel Prize with them.
(16)Frederick Sanger
(1918-2013)
HE DETERMINED THE STRUCTURE OF INSULIN
EVEN after it was found that insulin controlled diabetes and
that it was also a protein, its structure remained unknown until Sanger, the
British biochemist, determined it. He showed that insulin is made of two chains
of amino acids, held together by two bridges of sulphur atoms. He was also able
to identity all the amino acids and determine their sequence in the chains.
It was not an easy discovery. He developed a technique of
marking the amino acids at the end of chain, a process e=which laid the
foundation of determining structures of proteins. Sanger was awarded the Nobel
Prize in 1958 for his discovery. He improved upon this method and developed an
even more powerful method to determine the sequence of amino acids in DNA
molecules. Apart from important implications in the study of genetics, his
methods laid the foundations of bio-technology which aims at building tailor
made DNA molecules with a predetermined sequence of amino acids. Sanger was
awarded the second Nobel Prize in 1980, which he shared with Gilbert and Berg
doing similar work. Sanger is one of the four scientists to receive two Nobel
Prizes!
(17)Willem Einthoven
(1860-1927)
DEVELOPED THE ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG) MACHINE
On a receiving a nervous impulse, the heart contracts and
pumps out blood. Can one record these changes in the electrical impulses, study
if the heart is functioning properly and get clues without having to reach the
heart surgically? Einthoven, a Dutch physician and physiologists, succeeded in
the designing the first device for this purpose.
It was a simple string galvanometer capable of measuring
small changes in electrical potential as the heart contracted and relaxed.
Electrodes were attached to the limbs of the patient. As the string deflected,
it obstructed a beam of light and the photographic paper recorded the shadow.
Since the heart contracts and relaxes repeatedly, one can record the wave
pattern of these impulses.
The ECG machine of today looks very different but works on
the same principle. We now use an electronic device and a cathode ray tube.
What matters is that the wave pattern recorded by the ECG machine can give
distinct clues about the functioning of the heart. It is also interesting to
note that a machine working on similar principles, the EEC, is now used to
study the functioning of the brain. Einthoven was awarded the Nobel Prize in
1924 for this discovery.
(18)John Dalton
(1766-1844)
HE PROPOSED THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER
For centuries people had toyed with the idea that matter was
composed of atoms. But no one had given it an experimentally verifiable form.
This breakthrough was achieved by a British scientist, John Dalton. Dalton
lived in an era when several chemical reactions had been studied, establishing
that in a chemical reaction, the total weight of reactants is conserved. It was
known that chemical substances combine with each other in simple proportions.
Knowing this, Dalton proposed that all atoms of the same element are exactly
alike, but differ from those of the other elements. Moreover, in a chemical
reaction, it is the atoms of one element that combine with those of the other element.
Dalton’s theory had far-reaching consequences. It showed
that chemical reactions occur at the atomic level. Also, since atoms of the
same elements are exactly alike, the atomic weight of an element became its
signature. This concept gave a support to measurements of atomic weights. We
know that the atom is not indivisible. We also know that the because of isotopes all atoms of the same
element are not alike. Even then, Dalton’s work stands out like a milestone!
(19)J J Thomson
(1856-1940)
HE DISCOVERED THE ELECTRON
J J Thomson, a British scientist, was studying discharge of
electricity through gases. He observed that when an electric current is passed
through the tube, the negative electrode (cathode) emits radiation, affecting a
photographic plate. These cathode rays are particles and not electromagnetic
radiation, since they have mass. A magnetic field shows them to be negatively
charged. Thomson called them corpuscles, and they later became known as
electrons.
Thomson created electric and magnetic fields around the
discharge tube and studied how the rays bend. Using these methods he determined
the ratio of charge to mass, from which he argued that electrons were sub
atomic particles. If electrons were negatively charged sub atomic particles,
there must be an equivalent positive charge somewhere to make the atom
electrically neutral.
Thomson proposed that the atom could be like a watermelon,
with positive charge filling the volume of the melon and the negative charges
(electrons) embedded in it like the seeds! Now we know this to be an erroneous
concept of atomic structure. However, his discovery of the electron, leading to
the atomic structure in terms of positive and negative charges, is a milestone
in sciences. J.J. Thomson was awarded Nobel prize in 1906.
(20)Lord Ernest
Rutherford
(1871-1937)
HE ESTABLISHED THAT ATOM RESEMBLES THE SOLAR SYSTEM
RUTHERFORD, originally from New Zealand, settled down in
England, where he did most of his work. He discovered with remarkably simple
equipment that the positive charge of the atom and almost its entire mass is
concentrated in a tiny nucleus. Rutherford made a large number of discoveries
in radioactivity. He proved that alpha particles emitted by radioactive atoms
were helium nuclei. He bombarded a thin gold foil with energetic alpha
particles. If the atom were like a watermelon, all the alpha particles would
pass through the little bending. But he observed that a small fraction of alpha
particles, in fact, recoiled. The interpretation was simple. If all the
positive charge of the atoms were to be concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the
centre of the atom, positively charged alpha particles making a head-on collision
with gold nuclei would be repulsed heavily and thrown back. Thus the structure
of an atom with a central nucleus was established.
Rutherford also proved that it is possible to achieve
artificial transmutation of elements, converting one element into another. No
wonder he is regarded as the grandfather of atomic science. Rutherford was
awarded Nobel Prize in chemistry for 1908.
(21)NIELS BOHR
(1885-1962)
(1885-1962)
He discovered the structure of the
atom
RUTHERFORD
discovered that the nucleus of the atom holds all the positive charge and
almost the entire mass of the atom. However, the statement that an atom
resembles the solar system would have difficulties, because a charge undergoing
circular motion would be accelerating, and hence losing energy. According to
classical physics, such an electron would quickly spiral into the nucleus!
Niels Bohr,
the Danish physicist, solved the riddle. He postulated that only certain orbits
are stable. An electron can go around the nucleus only in these orbits. If an
electron losses or gains energy, it jumps into the next appropriate orbit, and
the difference in energy is radiated or absorbed in the form of light. The
virtue of Bohr’s hypothesis is that apart from explaining the observed atomic
spectra and the chemical properties of matter, it also explained; at once go,
why atoms were stable.
The Institute for Theoretical Physics
at Copenhagen, where Bohr worked, attracter scientists from all over the world.
It was a home for leading scientists,
who presented their new ideas to Bohr. Ideas endorsed by the sharp and
discerning intellect of Niels Bohr became new theories in physics. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922
[22] Baruch Blumberg
[22] Baruch Blumberg
(1925- )
He discovered a vaccine against
Hepatitis-B
JAUNDICE is
caused by a virus that attacks the liver. It was earlier difficult to cure
people suffering from jaundice, since antibiotics are not of much use against
viruses. In general, jaundice is of two types. One is caused by contaminated
water or food, while the other is caused by contaminated blood. The latter is
caused by a deadly virus know as ‘Hepatitis-B’, which is dangerous because it
can lead to cancer of the liver.
Micro-organisms causing a disease carry
certain molecules on their outside. Just as a uniform enables you to identify
the profession of a person, these molecules enable the body to identify the
energy and prepare antibodies to fight them. Blumberg, the American physician,
has three achievements to his credit. He discovered the ‘uniform’ of
Hepatitis-B, which enabled him to identify and isolate this virus. He ensured
that specific antibodies can be prepared against it, and invented a technique
to detect Hepatitis-B by tracing antibodies in the blood. Later, Blumberg
succeeded in preparing a vaccine against Hepatitis-B. His discovery saved
millions of people from this deadly disease. Blumberg was awarded the Nobel
Prize in 1976, along with Gajdusek, who did similar work.
[23] Muscati Jayakar
(1844-1911)
Identified 22 New species of
Fish
ATMARAM Saashiv Jayakar went to England for higher education in
medicine after completing his M.B.B.S. in India. Later, he joined the Indian
medical Service. In a colonial regime, he was banished to Oman to look after
the health of Muscal’s residents. But Lt-Col Jayakar did not despair.
He nursed his hobby of studying animal life in the
environment and succeeded in identifying a special type of goat that even now
bears his name ‘Hegitragus Jayakari’. During his stay in Oman for three
decades, Jayakar collected a variety of rare fish, which he donated to the
British Museum of Natural History. Of the twenty-two new species of fish
identified by Jayakar, seven bears his name. Two varieties of snakes and
lizards are also named after him!
Jayakar’s vision was
by no means restricted to zoological specimens. In his very first year at Oman,
he produced a monograph entitled ‘Medical Topography of Oman’. He also compiled
the dictionary of idioms in the Omani language, which is regarded as the best
work on this subject. We should be proud that an Indian medical doctor,
banished to little-known Oman, conducted such excellent research!
[24] Chaim Weizmann
(1874-1952)
(1874-1952)
Laid
the foundation of the Fermentation Industry
Could some other bacteria ferment starch to produce acetone? With hard work Weizmann succeeded in discovering such bacteria. Acetone could now be produced on a large scale. To his pleasant, he found that the fermentation produced another substance in great demand, ‘butyl alcohol’. Naturally, this bacteria was named ‘Clostridium Acetobutylicum’. Weizmann not only solved this problem but laid the foundation of the fermentation industry. Weizmann politely declined all the coveted honors offered by the British government. Instead, he requested support for the creation of a separate state for Jews. This led to the historic Balfour declaration of Israel thirty years later. Weizmann became Israel’s first president. Later, he joined the Daniel Sieff Research Institute and became its director. Today, this institute is called the Weizmann Institute.
[25] Joshua
Lederberg
(1925-2008)
Laid the foundation
of Genetic Engineering
SINGLE-CELLED organisms reproduce by simple multiplication. The DNA molecules splits into two strings, producing sexually receive half the genetic information from the mother and the other half from the father, ensuring that no generation is an exact replica of the earlier generation. Geneticists believed that in single-celled organisms, the generations would be alike. ‘No’, said the American geneticist Joshua Lederberg. His ingenious experiments showed that some single-celled organisms are of two types. Cells of the two different types come together; the DNA from one enters the other, completing the entire stock of genetic information, before division begins. In other words, the two cells behave like father and mother! He also showed that certain viruses could carry part of a bacterial chromosome from one bacterium to another. This phenomenon is called ‘transduction’. Probably all this marked the beginning of sexual reproduction.
[26] Werner Arber
(1929- )
(1929- )
He
discovered Enzymes that destroy viruses
VIRUSES live on host cells. As they meet the
host, they inject their own DNA into the host cell and capture its mechanism
for reproduction. Then the organism has no alternative but to keep reproducing
the attacking virus. However, some organisms are wonderfully equipped to defend
themselves against these viruses. How do they manage to do it?
The Swiss microbiologist, Werner
Arber, was trying hard to discover an answer to this important question. He
found that as soon as a virus attacks, these organisms secrete some enzymes
which can cot the DNA of the attacking virus to pieces! This was an important
discovery. He also found that organisms secrete some other enzymes that can protect
their own DNA from being split!
Arber’s discovery had far-reaching
consequences. A new and safe enzyme that can attack only the enemy virus and
cut it to pieces was now available. Later, this finding could be used to bring
about desired changes in any DNA. In fact, Arber laid the foundations of
bio-technology. He shared the Nobel Prize for
1978 with Nathans and Smith of America, who
also discovered enzymes which could split the DNA at specified sites.
[27] Antoine Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908)
He discovered Spontaneous Radioactivity
The belief that
atoms were not divisible was held for centuries. Curiously enough, the study of
an enormously large number of chemical reactions did not shake this belief. But
the 10 years from 1895 to 1905 shook the very foundations of physics. After
Thomson discovered the electron and the French scientist Becquerel discovered
radioactivity, it was obvious that the atom was divisible!
Becquerel,
working on some uranium salts, discovered that the photographic plates, kept in
a closed envelope in the drawer of the table had become loggy. Moreover, the
film carried the image of a key kept on the envelope. To be sure, Becquerel
repeated the experiment taking due care. He got the same results! Obviously,
the uranium salt on the table was emitting some radiation capable of going
through wood and cardboard, but not through the metallic key. This was the
discovery of radioactivity.
The discovery
of radioactivity had tremendous consequences. First of all, it was proved that
these rays were emitted by the atom. Secondly, it was now possible to study
atomic structure by bombarding atoms with some of these energetic rays.
Becquerel was awarded the Noble Prize in
1903, jointly with Marie
and Pierre Curie.
[28]
Marie Curie
(1867-1934)
(1867-1934)
She
isolated Radioa
ctive Radium and Polonium
BECQUEREL had discovered
radioactivity. It was not yet known; however, which part of the atom was
emitting these mysterious rays. Nearly 100 years ago, it was difficult to
isolate the radioactive part using the chemical methods available. The task was
complicated further by the fact that isotopes were yet to be discovered.
It was the French couple, Marie
Curie and her husband Pierre who, despite all problems, meticulously went
through a tedious and time-consuming chemical analysis and succeeded in
isolating radium and polonium (named after Poland their motherland). Within two
years of Becquerel’s discovery, they had isolated these two elements. In fact,
in 1902 Marie Curie obtained one tenth of a gram of radiation was three million
times more than that of the uranium salt handled by Becquerel!
The Curie couple made available
several radioactive substances for research. Even more importantly, they
established that radioactivity could convert one element into another,
compelling scientists to revise the concept of ‘element’. Marie and Pierre
curie were awarded the noble for 1903 along with Becquerel.
Marie curie also received the noble price for chemistry
in 1911 and became first scientist to receive two noble prizes!
[29] Enrico Fermi
(1901-1954)
(1901-1954)
He built the first
atomic reaction
ENRICO Fermi lived in an era when
physics was undergoing rapid changes. Natural radioactivity could convert one
element into another. Artificial transmutation of elements could also be
achieved by bombarding the atom with alpha rays or protons. Meanwhile Chadwick
had discovered in 1932 a new particle, the neutron. Enrico Fermi, the Italian
Physicist, tried to obtain trans-uranic elements by bombarding heavy elements
with neutrons.
Fermi was a rare physicist who
excelled both in theory and in experiments. He showed that slow neutrons were
more effective in transmutation of elements and also produced a theory to
explain his results. He explained theoretically how a neutron within the
nucleus is converted into a proton with the emission of an electron, a process
known as beta decay. He developed with the British physicist Dirac the
statistics applicable to particles like electrons. These are known as the Fermi
Dirac statistics.
Fermi had to migrate to America to escape
persecution of the Jews. He settled in Chicago, where he built the first atomic
reactor. Fermi played a key role in developing the atom bomb. The huge
laboratory at Chicago is now known as the Fermi Lab. Fermi was awarded the Noble Prize for 1938.
[30] Konrad Lorenz
(1903-1989)
(1903-1989)
He discovered how social
behavior is inherited
GENETICS decides how the external and some of the internal
Characters of an organism are inherited. But what is it that controls an
organism’s social behavior, such as the decision to stay alone or in group? How
does it choose its leader? Or how does it decide whether to let itself be
domesticated? Is there an element in genetics that governs these aspects of
behavior?
Lorenz, an Austrian scientist experimenting with animals in
their natural habitat, discovered patterns of social behaviour governed by
genetics. As offspring grow they react to visual and auditory signals received
from their behaviour, a process called imprinting. Once imprinting is complete,
the animals give the same response to stimuli, regardless of where the stimuli
come from. The conclusions of Lorenz have been shown to be essentially right,
even though animals confined in a laboratory may exhibit somewhat different
behaviour.
Lorenz laid the foundation of the study of animal behaviour,
and opened a new branch of science. He was awarded the Noble
Prize in 1973 along with Tinbergen and Von Frisch, who did similar, who
did similar work on animal behaviour.
[31] Karl Landsteiner
(1868-1943)
He discovered Blood groups
BLOOD of all kinds looks the same to the naked eye, but it
isn’t. There are four blood groups, and a patient could react violently if, by
mistake, he is given blood of a wrong group. It could even result in death.
Remember, the body reacts against anything foreign! Molecules of two types,
working as antigens, could be present in the blood cells, leading to four different
blood groups, blood cells carrying molecules of one kind (A), cells carrying
molecules of the other kind (B), those carrying both (AB), and those not
carrying any (O). Obviously, type A cannot tolerate B and vice versa. Type AB
can take any blood, while anyone can take type O. This important discovery was
made by the American scientist Landsteiner.
Often during surgery or when a patient has suffered
excessive bleeding, it is necessary to give blood transfusion. Landsteiner’s
discovery explained why it is necessary to match the blood group before
transfusion. H was awarded the Noble Prize in
1930 for this important discovery.
Landsteiner did not rest on his laurels. He continued his
research on blood groups, and after nine years of hard work discovered two
subtle differences, Rh+79 and Rh-79.
[32]Dickinson W.RichardsJR. (1895-1973)
He used a catheter to look into
the Heart
EVERYONE is scared of a heart attack, which often results in
death. The heart, like any other muscle, requires a continuous blood supply.
If, for any reason, the supply to the heart is blocked and is not adequate, the
patient suffers from a heart attack. But the million-dollar question is, can
one diagnose this condition well in advanced and prevent a heart attack?
An American physiologist, Dickinson Richards Jr., developed
a technique of looking right into the heart without opening the chest. A thin
flexible catheter is inserted into the thigh vein and is slowly pushed up to the heart,
enabling the physician to look into various blood vessels serving the heart,
see if some of them are blocked, assess the extent of blockage and also
examine if the valves are functioning
properly. This technique, called cardiac catheterization, helps physicians
arrive at the diagnosis and take remedial measures.
Physicians are no longer helpless spectators to a heart
attack, which earlier almost inevitably resulted in death. Many patients get
timely help and are able to lead a long life. Dickinson Richards Jr. shared the
Noble Prize
for 1956 with Forssmann, who did similar
work.
[33] SIR BERNARD KATZ
(1911- 2003)
He discovered Neuro Transmitters
OUR skin reacts even to a delicate touch. Some sensitive people
can feel a piece of thread in an otherwise soft mattress! We can’t touch a
glowing ‘agarbatti’even momentarily. How do we ‘understand’ these stimuli?
Three factors are involved in the process: the skin and other organs that take
the message to the nerve fibre, nerve cells that receive the stimuli and the
nervous system that orders the body to take appropriate action. Obviously, all
this must take place with lightning speed! It was, therefore, believed that
this process takes place through electrical impulses which can travel very
fast. Bernard Katz, a British physiologist of German origin, investigated the
functioning of nerves and muscles, especially at the site of transmission of a
nerve impulse from a nerve fibre to a muscle fibre. It was Katz who showed that
the system cannot depend on electrical impulses alone chemical impulses are
also needed. He conceived the idea of chemical neurotransmitters and discovered
several types of these transmitters.
Understanding the working of
neurotransmitters was very important in medicine as it enabled scientists to
invent a variety of painkillers, Katz shared the Noble
Prize for 1970 with Axelrod of America who did similar work.
[34] D. D. Kosambi
(1907-1966)
(1907-1966)
He contributed handsomely to
many fields
MANY great minds are experts in a subject of their choice. Rare are the
Kosambi who gain mastery over a variety of fields. As a statistician, D. D.
Kosambi successfully forecast the yield of crops in China and developed methods
for quality control of industrial goods. His statistical methods for
determining the sites and sizes of dams were adopted by the national five-year
plan committee as the basis for optimizing the building of dams!
Kosambi was
also a historian of repute. He postulated that freshly minted coins of
approximately the same weight lose weight as they are handled. He collected and
weighed coins from several periods and was able to show that the width of the
curve of numbers against weight for coins of the Gupta period, where coins were
handled most, was indeed our golden age. He also held that caves were located
on the crossing of trade routes. With help from the Indian Air Force, he
discovered near Pune caves hidden in dense jungles which ancient trade routes
had crossed.
His treatise,
‘Introduction to the study of Indian History’, is a unique piece of work. As an
Indologist, he knew many European and ancient Indian languages. His work in
this field is also well known.
[35] Michael Faraday
(17991-1867)
(17991-1867)
He unveiled the secretes of
Magnetism
MICHAEL
Faraday had a deep insight into science. Though he joined Sir Humphrey Davy as
a humble assistant, with little formal training in science, he was able to make
significant breakthroughs. His rare vision enabled him to make discoveries in
magnetism, for instance, the relation between magnetism and electricity, and
effect of electricity on an electrolyte. His discoveries had far-reaching
consequences
Faraday
discovered that a magnet moving in a coil of wire could generate electricity.
Moving it vigorously produced more electricity. He was able to construct a
dynamo, an electrical motor, and also a transformer. He was able to show that
the passage of electricity through an ionic solution leads to the deposition of
ions on electrodes. This was the beginning of electroplating. Faraday was able
to achieve most of this before he had crossed his forties. The greatness of
Faraday was that he worried about ‘how’ and ‘why’. It was his inquiring mind
that led to the famous postulates of lines and tubes of force associated with a
magnet.
His concern
for spreading science in society was laudable. His popular lectures were at
once lucid and entertaining. The father of electromagnetism made science
popular in England.
[36] James Clerk Maxwell
(1831-1879)
His Equations have stood the
test of time
BRITISH
physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his short span of life (48 years),
contributed substantially to many branches of physics. An excellent
mathematical physicist, he studied heat and laid down statistical equations
describing the behaviour of molecules in a gas. Like Newton, he expressed his
ideas in mathematical equations, so that accurate and predictable answers could
be arrived at.
Apart from his statistics for gas molecules
(Maxwellian distribution of velocities), he’s famous for his equations in the
electromagnetic field. These equations encompass all laws discovered by
Faraday, besides the behaviour of light and electromagnetic radiation of any kind.
Light, as well as X-rays and radiowaves discovered much later could all be
described by his equations.
Theories that
stand the test of time are usually fundamental. Maxwell’s laws of
electromagnetism are truly fundamental. For example, as science progressed and
relativity appeared on the scene, and as deeper insights were obtained in
astrophysics, it was realised everything couldn’t be explained only on the
basis of gravitation. The role of electromagnetic forces was significant in
cosmology. Maxwell’s equations played an important role in introducing the
electromagnetic component in cosmology.
[37] R Chidambaram
(1936- )
(1936- )
Architect of Indian’s Nuclear
Programme
R Chidambaram
has played a key role in building the physics group at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre in Mumbai. This group is rated one of the best in the world,
both in developing advanced theory and in generating the latest experimental
techniques. He himself has worked on properties of matter under high pressure
and on scattering of neutrons by crystals. Today, he is one of the most
renowned neutron spectroscopists and crystallographers in the world.
Chidambaram
became known to the world, and to Indians in particular, because of his
leadership role in the Pokhran explosions. Even in 1974, before he had crossed
forty, he had played a significant role, taking the responsibility of making
intricate calculations on the computer for India’s first explosion.
Atom bombs, a
hydrogen bomb, two low yield devices and the explosions conducted in 1998
required truly remarkable abilities. One cannot import even an iota of
technology in these fields. All the know-how needed for atomic explosions, for
developing missiles, for remote sensing, for cryogenic engines and for a
super-computer has to be developed indigenously and under utmost secrecy. That
is why the work involved in explosions conducted by Chidambaram and his group
at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre is extremely commendable.
[38] Max Planck
(1858-1947)
(1858-1947)
His Quantum theory provided the
basis for knowing the photoelectric effect
As a metal rod is heated it progressively becomes warm, hot
and red hot. As its temperature rises, it begins to emit light, red in the
beginning, then yellow, and then blue. All this is common knowledge. However,
there is a conceptual difficulty. If the temperature is doubled, emission of
radiation for each colour is not doubled. The spectrum simply shifts to the left.
Which means, the most prominent colour now emitted by the object is of a higher
frequency or lower wavelength. The reverse happens when the temperature is
halved. This was just not understandable. Besides radiation emitted by hot
bodies, the German Physicist Max Planck had no clues. But he had vision. This
is how he solved the problem. Imagine molecules in the object to be some kind
of oscillators.
According to classical physics, all frequencies were
available to these oscillators. Planck postulated that only some frequencies
were available, and that the radiation emitted was in the nature of packets or
quanta.
Planck’s discovery is very important. It enabled scientists
to understand the outcome of an interaction between radiation and elementary
particles. Planck’s quantum theory provides the basis for understanding the
photoelectric effect and the Raman effect. Planck was awarded the Noble Prize for 1918.
[39] Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)
The most fertile brain of modern
world
The discovery of X-rays; electron and radioactivity were
followed by many new findings that shook physics. It was emitted when a thin
sheet of medal was bombarded with ultraviolet rays. It was also find that
shining the metal with a large beam of ultraviolet rays increase the yield of
electrons but not their velocities. On the other hand, using rays of higher
frequency (higher energy) resulted in electrons being emitted with higher
speeds.
This was one of the many puzzles solved by great Albert
Einstein. As postulated by Planck, radiation travels in packets of quanta. A
packet with enough energy to liberate an electron from the atom and impart the
remainder to give it speed would be able to knock the electron out. Einstein
called it the photo-electric effect.
Obviously, only a packet (phaton) with a higher energy would
be able to eject an electron and give it a higher speed. Einstein was awarded
the in Noble Prize
1921 for this work.
Einstein made many important discoveries like understanding
Brownian motion, Bose-Einstein statistics and his famous relation E=mc2.
However, he is known the world over for relativity. A separate episode will be
devoted to relativity later.
[40] Arthur H Compton
(1892-1962)
Found that Photon can give part
of its energy to an electron
Max Planck
had postulated that electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of packets
and not as waves. These packets are called photons or particles of light. The
American physicist Arthur Compton discovered that when a photon collides with a
free electron (not tightly bound to the atom), the photon can part with some of
its energy to the electron and emerge as a photon of reduced energy (longer
wavelength or higher frequency).
Compton
bombarded a piece of carbon with nearly monochromatic (of the same wavelength)
X-rays, having taken care of measure the wavelength of X-rays emitted by the
X-ray tube. Now the X-rays scattered in different directions were seen to have
longer wavelengths, indicating that the photons had imparted some of their
energy to the electrons in the block of carbon. Compton’s discovery gave
additional support to the quantum theory. Even more importantly, by measuring
the wavelengths of x-rays scattered in different directions, it was possible to
peep into the structure of matter. Indeed, Compton scattering became a new tool
in physics. He was awarded the Noble Prize
in 1927 along with
Wilson, who discovered the cloud chamber.
[41] Sir C V Raman
(1888-1970)
He inspired two Generations of
scientists
THE discovery that a photon could give all or part of its
energy to an electron (photoelectric and Compton Effect) had firmly established
the quantum theory. The Ramen effect was an important step further.
When monochromatic light was scattered by a transparent
object, the scattered light was seen to possess, besides the original
wavelength, both higher and lower wavelengths.
Why should light come out with increased energy? Because it
can both give and take some energy from the molecule. Raman interpreted all
aspects of this phenomenon. The molecules in an object can rotate around a
fixed axis, and can also oscillate with respect to each other. That is, they
have rotational and vibrational energy. The photons can both give and take from
this energy, resulting in scattered light having lower or higher energy. An
accurate measurement of these changes was now a powerful tool in the hands of physicists
and chemists.
The Raman Effect
kept scientists of the next two generations busy. Many well-known scientists in India are his
disciples. Raman also contributed substantially to acoustics and to the
perception of colour by the human eye. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1930.
[42] Peyton Rous
(1879-1970)
His Discoveries made the blood
bank possible
Human blood cannot be stored in bottles! For it coagulates
in no time, separating its solid and liquid components, making it useless for
transfusion. Peyton Rous discovered a method of storing human blood for a
fairly long time. His discovery led to establishment of a blood bank, which was
immensely useful in the First World War (1914-18). Timely blood transfusion
saved the life of many soldiers.
But Peyton Rous is known more for his research on cancer. He
proposed that a virus was responsible for cancer. The million-dollar question
was: if cancer is caused by a virus, why is it not contagious like the common
cold? Rous conducted some ingenious and intricate experiments to answer this
question. He extracted from a tumour some liquid containing the cancer virus,
injected it into a fowl and that the fowl developed cancer. That is, cancer
could be transmitted! Such experiments are difficult and have to be carried out
meticulously.
Research on cancer is important, for cancer and AIDS are the
only major diseases still defying scientific advances! Peyton Rous was awarded
the Noble Prize for 1966 for achieving this
breakthrough by conducting such difficult experiments meticulously.
[43] Sir Ronald Ross
(1857-1932)
He discovered how Mosquitoes
spread Malaria
MALARIA is a dangerous, killer disease. It is one of the
main killers in poor countries. It is usually rampant in mal(bad) areas, that
is, in places with stagnant water where mosquitoes can breed. One knew that
malaria was caused by mosquitoes. But in the absence of an understanding of
‘how’ and ‘why’, common knowledge is not elevated to ‘science’. The ‘how’ and
‘why’ for malaria were investigated by the British scientist, Sir Ronald Ross.
He discovered that a microbe, ‘plasmodium’, causes malaria and that it is
spread by the female of Anopheles type of mosquito. Ross demonstrated that a
bird injected with a dose of plasmodium suffers from malaria and showed that
humans acquire malaria in similar fashion. The plasmodia enter the red blood
cells, multiply within the cell, then burst it open and attack other blood
cells.
During this process the patient shivers, suffers from high
fever every two or three days, becomes weak and may even die.
Ross conducted this work nearly 100 years ago with primitive
equipment. His findings were applicable to Brazil and Africa also. He was
awarded the Noble Prize for 1902 for his painstaking work.
[44] Camillo Golgi
(1843-1926)
He discovered the basis of the
Nervous system
The discovery of microscopes enabled scientists the world
over to study structures of cells. One of the basic
problems was understanding how cells prepare proteins. In his studies, Golgi
discovered some round objects near the cell’s nucleus. He was able to show that
these round objects, subsequently named ‘Golgi bodies’, play an important part
in making proteins. Golgi discovered the functions of nerve cells.
He discovered the silver nitrate
method of staining the nerve tissue_- a tool used even today- for studying
nerve cells. This stain enabled Golgi to discover a particular type of nerve
cell, possessing many short extensions that looked like branches of a tree and
which served to connect many other nerve cells. Later he discovered irregular
networks of tiny thread-like structures present in nerve cells. These are now
known as Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus.
Golgi did all this work using
only rudimentary apparatus and simple microscopes. Later he studied malaria and
different life cycles in the human body. Golgi was awarded the Noble Prize in 1906
with Raman Y. Cajal Santiago, who was inspired by Golgi and did similar
work.
[45] Emil Adolph Behring
(1854-1917)
He saved Humanity from
Diphtheria
NEARLY one hundred years ago, diseases like diphtheria or
tetanus were sure killers. Diphtheria is caused by germs growing in the throat
region. They multiply very fast and can block the patient’s breathing system
within hours. A diagnosis of diphtheria inevitably meant that death was not far
away. Those were days when science and technology had just taken roots.
Antibiotics were yet to be discovered. Only primitive microscopes were
available to study micro-organisms. It was against these odds that a German
scientist, Behring, worked, putting all his skills at stake to save mankind
from diphtheria. First, he succeeded in isolating the bacteria causing
diphtheria. Second, he discovered a medicine that could act as an antidote
against toxins secreted by these bacteria. These are called antitoxins. In
fact, Behring was the originator of the very concept of antitoxins.
Antitoxin may be a cure for diphtheria. However, there is
hardly any time after the diagnosis of diphtheria is made. In other words,
prevention is a must. Behring discovered a vaccine against diphtheria and saved
mankind from this deadly disease. He was awarded the Nobel
Prize for 1901 for this work.
[46] G N Ramachandran
(1922-2001)
He made great discoveries, But
Didn’t get a Noble
STRUCTURE, form and
function are always related. Biological molecules are no exception. That is why
understanding the structure of biological molecules is so important. But these
molecules are so large that unveiling their structure is very difficult.
Ramachandran developed the technique of crystallizing these giant molecules to
allow their structure to be studied with the help of X-ray analysis.
Ramachandran proposed a triple helical structure for a molecule
called collagen, found in muscles. This discovery is considered important as
the discovery of the double helix. His theory led to the Ramachandran plot for
two connected analogues. This was a turning point in the evolution of the
theory of bio-polymer conformation. His plot is used in several branches of
life sciences. In fact, it would not be an exaggeration to say the discoveries
of Ramachandran laid the foundations of bio-physics. He also established two
research institutions for bio-physics.
Ramachandran work has helped in the development of the
techniques of CATSCAN and magnetic resonance, techniques that are of great use
in medical diagnosis. Recently, he has also contributed to the mathematics of
logic and to the development of computer software. It is a pity that he has not been awarded the
Noble Prize.
[47] Carolus Linnaeus
(1707-1778)
He invented scientific names for
life forms
The variety in life forms is amazing! There is however, a
method, a common thread in this diversity. Two life forms that look so
different on the face of it do have common features, indicating that they are
related. The Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus used this common thread to give a
scientific basis for naming and classifying life forms.
Linnaeus identified several levels like family, genus,
species, and strain and showed that once all these were clearly identified, the
particular life form was pinpointed. His method of naming a life form based on
these differences is so accurate and simple that it is used even today. The
Latin names sound strange. For example, the ‘touch me not’ plant is called
Mimosa Pudica! But the names are accurate! Linnaeus also showed that plants
reproduce sexually and identified their parts involved in the process and gave
them scientific names. Identifying similarities in these parts helped Linnaeus
develop his system.
Though the system evolved later, the basic ideas advocated
by Linnaeus helped scientists understand how diversity was created in the
course of evolution. Even though a life form is identified today on the basis
of its genetic stock, there is little doubt that it was Linnaeus who originated
the system of naming and classification.
[48] Homi J Bhabha
(1909-1966)
C V Raman called him ‘The modern
Leonardo da
HOMI Bhabha, born on October 30, was a scientist, an
engineer, an institution builder, an artist and above all, a great human being!
He started his career when new elementary particles, new theories and techniques
were being discovered. He made vital contributions to these developments.
Bhabha, with Heitler, proposed the cascade theory which explains why electrons
are found in cosmic rays at sea level. Electrons from outer space can’t
penetrate the atmosphere to reach sea-level. Bhabha proposed that high energy
electrons passing through matter produce gamma rays, which subsequently produce
pairs of electrons and positrons. They, in turn, emit gamma rays, creating a
huge shower. This goes on until the energy is exhausted. Bhabha also calculated
the cross-section (probability) of scattering of electrons and positrons in a
material medium (Bhabha scattering). He said the measured life-time of a meson
in flight is affected by the time dilation predicted by Einstein’s theory of
relativity.
But Bhabha is known more for the great institutions he
built: The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, the entire atomic energy
programme and the space programme!
[49] James Watson
(1928- )
He put together the double Helix
that rules our lives
ONCE, it was known that the
entire genetic information is contained in the De.oxy.Ribo. Nucleic Acid (DNA)
molecule, it became important to know the structure of DNA. Because structure,
form and function are intimately related. Unless the structure of DNA was
known, it would not be possible to understand how it functioned and was able to
transfer all its genetic information to the daughter cell.
The American geneticist James
Watson collaborated with a British scientist Francis Crick on this project.
They sought help from the X-ray
spectroscopic pictures obtained by Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
Then they constructed the model of DNA using
simple threads, wires and small pieces from a metal sheet. They were able to
show that the DNA is a double helix. It looks like a spiral staircase
consisting of two intertwined chains of sugar-phosphate, with the flat base
pairs forming steps between them. This double helical structure of DNA enabled
scientists to figure out how cells reproduce and how genetic information is
transmitted. The ‘Double Helix’ is one of the striking discoveries of recent
times, for which Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the Noble Prize in 1962.
[50] Paul Ehrlich
(1854-1915)
He gave us Immunity from many
Diseases
PAUL Ehrlich, the German medical
scientist, has contributed handsomely to the science of medicine. He was the
pioneer of modern pathology relating to blood examination. Ehrlich developed the staining process so that
the required component could take the stain and stand out under microscope.
Ehrlich
worked hard and extensively, trying to understand how body cells combat
bacteria. In the process he was successful in preparing a vaccine against the
deadly disease, diphtheria. This vaccine could be used on a mass scale. Even
more importantly, he showed that one could acquire immunity from a disease by
vaccination, and thus founded the science of immunology. He developed a medicine called Neosalvarsan,
based on arsenic and effective against syphilis. This was the only medicine
available against syphilis before antibiotics were discovered.
Ehrlich
discovered medicines that could go mainly to the disease affected tissue and
act there. Today this science is known as tissue targeted chemotherapy. In
those days these medicines were known as magic bullets ‘I this method is used
even today against cancer. All this work, especially his pioneering work on
immunology, earned him the Nobel Prize for 1908.
[51] Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet
(1899-1985)
He discovered
How the body’s soldiers Identify Enemies
HOW does our body defend itself from harmful bacteria? We
are all endowed with a powerful and efficient defence mechanism guarded by
lymph cells. However, it was not known how the lymph cells identify enemy
bacteria, go to war against them and finally kill them to save us from
diseases.
The Australian medical scientist Mactariane Burnet proposed
that lymph cells have the ability to distinguish between body cells and alien
disease cells. Every cell carries on its outside a pattern of molecules that is
specific to that cell. If you can identify these molecules and this pattern,
you can identifying a person’s proffession from his uniform.macfarlane Burnel
further proposed that the foetus in a mother’s womb does not have this ability
right from early stages. It accepts any cell. Up to a certain stages, all cells
coming in contact with the lymph system are sort of introduced and accepted as
friends!
The distinction begins at a later stage. Many scientists,
especially Medawar, conducted several experiments later and showed that
Macfarlane Burnet was right. Marfarlane Burnet was awarded the Noble Prize in
1960 along with Peter Medawar.
[52] Sir Peter Brian Medawar
(1915-1987)
He
discovered how and when Body’soldiers are trained
IF you implant a
piece of skin from one rat on another, the receiver promptly rejects it.”This
is not a part of my body. This is something foreign,” says the
receiver.Macfarlane Burnet had proposed that a growing baby in the womb doesn’t
know the difference. Medawar(british) decided to find out. Some experiments are
simple and straightforward. Medawar’s experiment was one such. He extracted a
few cells from the spleen of a rat and injected them in the womb of another rat
carrying the baby. These were accepted,since the baby had not yet learnt to
distinguish its own cells from foreign cells. The growing foetus of rat was now
‘introduced’ to these cells. The baby rat would now accept them as its owm even
after fullgrowth. The theory of Burnet was fully vindicated!
The experiment was
simple, but it had tremendous implications. Scientists could now study how the
defence mechanisms of a newly born baby develops as it grows. Even more
importantly, these findings gave considerable impetus to the study of organ
transplantation. Sir Peter Medawar was awarded the Noble Prize for 1960 along
with Macfarlane Burnet.
[53] S P Agharkar
(1884-1960)
He discovered many types of plants
The young Agharkar was fascinated by plants and animals in
the Western Ghats. His hobby led to the discovery of a new jelly fish. His
information was accurate and his observation was recorded with meticulous
details. Impressed by these qualities, the Indian museum Calcutta offered him a
research job. Agharkar used this opportunity to discover many types of plants
that still carry his name.
Recognizing his merit, Sir C V Raman recommended him for the
Ghosh Professorship at Calcutta. During this time Agharkar went to Germany for
higher studies when the First World War (1914-18) broke out, and Agharkar was
promptly put behind bars! But Agharkar completed his doctorate even in jail and
discovered many types of plants on his return to India.
Agharkar had no hesitation in fighting colonial rule to
protect the interests of Indian Science and Indian scientists. He fought with
the British Government to stop the transfer, ostensibly for safe keeping, from
Sibpur herbarium, Calcutta to the Royal Botanical Gardens in London. Agharkar
is also associated in the building of many research institutes. The one in
Pune, which now carris his name, was established by him after retirement.
[54] Friedrich Wohler
(1800-1882)
He blew the Myth of ‘Organic
Chemistry’
FEW discoveries in science have been made according to a
planned time-table. They are the result of man’s increasing stock of knowledge
and his improved understanding of nature. Chemistry provides a striking example
of his process! Man gradually came to control several chemical reactions,
succeeded in isolating many elements and learnt to prepare several compounds,
except some compounds found in living systems.
These compounds always contained carbon, besides hydrogen,
oxygen , nitrogen and a few other elements. For many decades chemists were
unable to prepare these compounds in the laboratory. That’s why they began
wondering if a special force called the ‘force of life’ was necessary to make
them. On the other hand, there was hardly any understanding of the ‘force of life’.
Chemistry of such compounds formed a separate discipline called ‘Organic
Chemistry’.
The German chemist Friedrich Wohler solved this puzzle. He
succeeded in making urea, found until then only in the urine of animals, from
ammonium cynate, which is an organic compound. This was a great breakthrough,
because chemists were then able to prepare a large number of organic compounds
in the laboratory. Organic chemistry is now called the chemistry of carbon
compounds.
[55] Edwin Drake
(1819-1880)
He dilled the first oil well
IT is rightly said the economy of the world floats on oil.
Deep wells are drilled to obtain crude oil, rightly called ‘Black gold’. Oil
wells have been drilled in the Middle East, in America, in Russia, and in Assam
and Bombay High in India. As of today, these wells yield thousands of tons of
oil. But who drilled the firs oil?
Before any drillingwas thought of, oil that seeped into the
ground was used as medicine!
But as someone proposed that fractional distillation of the
oil would yield many useful substances, enterprising industrialists decide not
to depend on the little seeping into the ground, but to drill for tapping its
very source.
With this impetus, the Seneca Oil Company founded in New
York, gave the contract to Edwin L Drake. He erected an engine hose and began
drilling.
He struck oil at seventy feet and extacted eight gallons of
oil per day. The news spread literally like wild fire. Within five years,
several wells were drilled to obtain six thousand barrels of oil per day! But
the credit of drilling the first oil well goes to the American engineer Edwin
Drake.
[56] Alfred Wegener
(1880-1930)
He showed that continents moved and
are on the move
ONCE upon a time, that is, about 150 million years ago, most
of the continents were together. They formed one land mass. Then they drilled
away. It was only around 60 million years ago that the map of the world
resembled the map of today. This was the opinion of several geologists and
geographers. But they had hardly any proof, apart from the fact that outlines
of continents fitted into one another rather remarkably.
It was Alfred Wegener, the German meteorologist who
collected evidence from several disciplines to show that continents have
drifted apart. Naturally, his proofs have been based on geography dated 150
million years ago. Mountain ranges that came together if continental outlines
are matched, have matching rock systems. The rocks exhibit similar magnetic
properties and have fossils that look similar. Deposits from glaciers in
matching mountain ranges also show several similarities. Wegener collected
information from many parts of the world. He want on expeditions to Antarctica,
America, Africa, Australia, India and Madagascar to collect valuable evidence.
He died while leading an expedition in Greenland in 1930. Sensitive remote
sensing techniques used in satellites have shown that Wegener was right.
[57] Ernst Ruska
(1906-1988)
He invented the Electron Microscope
THE microscope opened up a new world to scientists who could
now see bacteria clearly. However, the optical microscope, limited to a
magnification of a couple of thousand times, could not show the detailed
structure of small bacteria and certainly could not reveal the existence of
viruses. The German scientists Ernst Ruska toyed with the idea of harnessing
the newly discovered electron to obtain higher magnification.
The wave-length of a fast electron is a few thousand times
less than that of visible light. Hence, the electron microscope can give an
image magnified by hundred thousand times. However, the techniques were now so
different! In place of the lens a magnetic field was needed to focus electrons,
and to ‘see’ the image of fluorescent screen was needed. But now a
magnification of hundred thousand was possible!
The electron microscope was a great invention, useful in
many branches of science. Besides showing details of microbes and structure of
big biological molecules, it revealed the existence of viruses, enriching
medical science immensely. It helped physicists and chemist in the study of
matter. Ruska was awarded the Nobel Prize, though belatedly along with Binning
and Rohrer in 1986.
[58] Barbara McClintock
(1902-1992)
She showed jumping Genes an necessary
to make Proteins
GENES are an important factor governing genetics. Occurring
in chromosomes, they look like beads strung in a thread. However, the sequence
does not contain only genes necessary to make the protein. Between useful genes
there are others whose functions were not known for a long time. It remained a
mystery how only useful genes came together to make the protein.
The mystery was solved by American scientist Barbara
McClintock who worked on the genetics of maize. She showed that genes governing
the color of a kernel, or many other properties, can be turned on or off! There
are genetic elements that work as switches. Moreover, these elements can jump
from part of a chromosome to another type of element called the activator. Thus
the jumping genes were not unnecessary!
McClintock had a tough time entering areas denied to women
in America 80 years ago. Banished to remote corners, she worked on genetics of
maize all her life. Only when the importance of her work on jumping genes was
realised was her research appreciated. McClintock was awarded Nobel Prize in
1983, 40 years after her work was published.
[59] Henry Ford
(1863-1947)
He made the first Motor Car
ONE of the striking inventions that changed our lives
dramatically was that of the internal combustion engine. When energy had to be
produced by burning(say) coal externally, engines tended to be large and heavy.
Just recall the coal engine of the railways! The internal combustion process,
however, could generate as much power in a compact engine. Two inventors made
full use of this engine. The Wright brothers flew their tiny plane and Henry
Ford produced his automobile.
Henry Ford, the American inventor, made his first car in
1896 and established the Ford Motor Company in 1903. Inventors like the
pneumatic tyres and advances in metallurgy also came to his help. Ford was also
a great management expert. He thought of producing his car on an assembly line
and produced more than 15 million model T-cars in just about 20 years.
Science and technology progress hand in hand. History shows
that advances in science make new technology possible, which in turn prompts
fresh advances in science. This thumb rule operates in all disciplines of
science and technology. Henry Ford’s automobile is salutary and strikingly
visible example of his phenomenon!
[60] Allen Cormack
(1924-1998)
He showed the possibility of Cat-Scan
IT is well known that Rontgen discovered X-rays, which are
used primarily to investigate bone fracture. Everyone earlier thought X-rays
would be of little use to investigate soft matter like tissues and muscles,
since the rays would pass through them. But Allen Cormack, educated in South
Africa and settled in America, Had other ideas!
Cormack wondered if this was an intrinsic limitation of
X-rays, or of the two dimensional pictures that one generally looked at. He
proved that if we take pictures of muscles from three dimensions, feed the
computer with the pictures of each dimension and ask the computer to generate
three-dimensional composite pictures, it should be possible to study even soft
matter like a muscle using X-rays. Cormack proved this mathematically while a
British engineer Hounsfield, built the apparatus.
Today, Computer Assisted Tomography(CAT-scan) has become an
important non-invasive diagnostic tool. It can be used to obtain clear pictures
of brain tumour or haemorrhage or of tumours of other internal organs.
Computers and X-rays came together to give a second lease or life to millions!
The Nobel Prize for 1979 was awarded jointly to Cormack and Hounsfield.
[61] Pierre-Paul Broca
(1824-1880)
His research threw light of the
Brain’s activities
A hundred and fifty years ago, little was known about the
way the brain functioned. Dissection of dead bodies yielded pretty little
information, and it was just not possible to conduct experiments on living
human beings. Hence it was known which activity of man was controlled by which
part of the brain. Paul Broca, a French surgeon, had several opportunities to
treat patients who had sustained brain injuries. He tried to relate injured
sites in the brain to specific abilities his patients had fully or partly lost.
Collecting a large data of such information, Broca attempted to map physical
activities to brain sites. He was able to show that speech is controlled by an
area in the left frontal lobe, now called Broca’s area. His research enabled scientists
to investigate how man uses his brain in activities related to speech.
But Broca went astray on one point. From his findings that
men had larger cranial capacity, he concluded that women were less intelligent
than men! He didn’t realize that what matters is brain size(weight) per body
weight! But Broca’s reputation was so great that even today, there are people
who told that men are more intelligent!
[62] S R Ranganathan
(1892-1972)
He developed the Colon system of
classification
CLASSIFYING books in a big library is never easy. There are
two requirements. A book should be classified in one and only one way. Second
the classification number should give some clue about its contents and enable
the reader to trace the book to its correct place. The colon system of
classification invented by Ranganathan makes it possible. While the system uses
several English alphabets and other signs, the use of colon(:) is its central
idea. Ranganathan, a professor of mathematics, accepted librarianship of Madras
University as a challenge. In 1924, he was sent to England for higher
education. He soon discovered the current methods of classification were not
suitable for Indian languages. He said so in no uncertain terms and developed
his famous colon system. Ranganathan demonstrated its utility by classifying
books in the ship’s library of his return journey.
Ranganathan’s colon system is famous world over. Nearly
2,500 leading libraries in India use it, enabling library staff to provide
prompt reference service to users. Even more importantly, Ranganathan elevated
library work to status library science where basic research work can be
conducted!
[63] Sir Hans Adolf Krebs
(1900-1981)
He discovered how energy is generated
from Blood
WE all know that food is necessary for generating energy.
But we hardly know what happens to the food we eat, that is, which chemical
reactions convert food into energy. Hans Adolf Krebs, born and educated in
Germany and settled in Britain, and Lipmann, educated in Germany and settled in
America, discovered how this happens.
Krebs discovered that a cycle of chemical reactions called
the citric acid cycle, now known as krebs cycle, works continuously in our
bodies. Sugars, fats and proteins are broken down in the presence of oxygen to
form carbon dioxide, water and energy rich compounds. This process as well as
many other energy-generating processes in the body depend on the krebs cycle,
which was helped us understand the metabolic reaction in our cells. Krebs also discovered
the ’urea cycle’ which converts the highly toxic ammonia to non-toxic urea in
our bodies.
These discoveries required intricate and time-consuming
work. Krebs worked on liver and breast muscles of pigeons to unearth these
chemical reactions. It was after extremely hard work that the krebs cycle was
discovered. The Nobel Prize for 1953 was awarded jointly to krebs and Lipmann.
[64] Michael Brown
(1941-)
He showed that Heart Attacks can be
predicted
A heart attack is not that uncommon these days. However,
prevention has always been better than cure! Naturally, medical scientists want
to know what changes in the body lead to a heart attack. Can one measure the
percentage of some chemicals in the body and predict the possibility of a heart
attack?
Yes, said Michael Brown and his workers. They put their
finger on the culprit. There are different kinds of fats in the body. Among
them, cholesterol is the real culprit. And the low-density lipoprotein (LDL for
short) receptor, a protein molecule which ferries particles rich in cholesterol
from the blood in the cell, signals the level of cholesterol. As LDL and some
other particles in the blood begin to settle inside blood vessels supplying
blood to the heart, the patient begins to suffer from a heart condition. An
increase in the LDL signals the possibility of a heart attack.
This discovery had important implications. We now understand
the metabolism of cholesterol and the role of diet and exercise in controlling
it. Brown and his colleague Joseph Goldstein were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize
for 1985.
[65] Stanley Miller
(1930-2007)
He showed how life could have
originated on earth
LIFE does not exist anywhere else in the solar system, and
we don’t know if it exits somewhere on a planet orbiting a distant star. As far
as we know, only earth supports life. That’s why it is important to know how
life originated on earth.
The early atmosphere of earth consisted of methane, ammonia,
hydrogen, other such gases and water. Alexander Oparin; a Russian scientist,
had suggested that frequent and powerful lightning striking this atmosphere
could have led to the formation of life. Miller decided to test this
hypothesis. He filled a glass vessel with this primordial soup, sealed it and
subjected it for lightning sparks. Soon he found that amino acids had been
formed in the vessel. These could have combined further to form proteins and
then single-celled life forms.
Miller’s experiment
threw considerable light on the origin of life on earth. It also gave impetus
to research on how life evolved, and how intelligence could have originated and
evolved. Even more importantly, it showed that questions like these could be
tested experimentally. That’s why Miller’s experiment is considered an
important milestone in science.
[66] Erwin Schrodinger
(1887-1961)
He described the Hydrogen atom by a
wave equation
A close study of the atom created confusion! The elementary
particles like electrons were seen exhibiting properties of waves! Whether one
would see the particle or the wave nature depended on the nature of the
experiment performed! But what does one mean by ‘wave nature’ of a particle?
Can one prescribe for these waves, equations like those for light?
The solution was given by a German physicist. Erwin
Schrodinger. He chose the hydrogen atom, which has the simplest structure of an
electron orbiting a proton. Schrodinger constructed a wave equation, which
obeyed quantum mechanics and the described the behaviour of the hydrogen atom.
One of the conclusions of this equation was that the electron was in fact, a
cloud surrounding the central proton Schrodinger’s equation showed the various
shapes the cloud would take as the energy level changes! Later, Dirac
introduced the spin and revised these equations.
By this time spectroscopy had advanced considerably.
Schrodinger’s equation helped connect lines in atomic spectroscopy with the
precise energy levels of the atom Schrodinger was awarded the Nobel Prize
jointly with Dirac for the year 1933.
[67] Werner Heisenberg
(1901-1976)
He postulated the principle of
uncertainty
SCIENTISTS were bewildered to see the strange behaviour of
elementary particles exhibited properties of waves, while in some other
experiments, light, that is electromagnetic waves, behaved like particles
(photons). How does one explain this? It was a difficult challenge! The German
scientist Werner Heisenberg solved this difficult puzzle. He showed that the
wave and the nature of sub-atomic particles are two sides of the same coin.
Depending on the nature of the experiment, we see one or the other! Heisenberg
made ingenious use of matrix algebra to give a firm foundation for his theory.
However, Heisenberg is even more famous for yet another discovery.
He showed that for particles of atomic size, it is, in
principle, impossible to determine both position and momentum simultaneously
with perfect accuracy. I we use light of very small wavelength (high energy) to
determine the position of an electron, the impact will make the momentum
uncertain. If we use light of very long wavelength (low energy), it’s position
will be uncertain. This is the famous principle. Heisenberg was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1932.
[68] Richard Willstatter
(1872-1942)
He isolated and studied Chlorophyll
in Plants
WE all know leaves of plants are essentially green. We also
know this green color is due to chlorophyll. But the precise structure of
chlorophyll and how it helps the process of photosynthesis was not understood
properly. The German chemist Willstatter solved this mystery. One of his
important discoveries is that magnesium is not an impurity in chlorophyll, but
an essential part of it. He studied chlorophyll in detail. The greatness of
Willstatter is that he did not depend on commercial chlorophyll, but rediscovered
chromatography to isolate it from plants. He showed the remarkable structural
similarity between haemoglobin, which gives red color to our blood, and
chlorophyll which makes leaves green. He also discovered chlorophyll is of two
types, bluish green and yellowish green, and that pigments like carotene are
invariably present along with chlorophyll.
Willstatter made many discoveries. He discovered the
structure of cocaine, which enabled pharmaceuticals to invent new drugs. He was
a pioneer in the use of hydrochloric acid to get sugar from cellulose. He
invented a gas mask working on chemical principles to save soldiers from
poisonous gases. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1915.
[69] Joseph Black
(1728-1799)
Simple Equipment, Simple Ideas and
Great Discoveries
SOME scientists have made discoveries which look simple, but
which have important consequences. Joseph black is an excellent example. He
discovered carbon dioxide and its properties, ‘latent heat’ and ‘heat
capacity’. He found carbon dioxide is acidic and that it supports neither
animal life nor combustion.
He discovered that carbonates, on releasing carbon dioxide,
become more alkaline. If the gas is mixed with the carbonates again, their
alkalinity increases. These experiments, performed meticulously, enabled Black
to discover the properties of carbon dioxide. He found that melting ice absorbs
heat from the surroundings, but its temperature does not increase. This careful
observation enabled Black to discover ‘latent heat’. He also found that equal
amounts of various substances require different quantities of heat for raising
their temperature by five degrees. This observation led to discovery of ‘heat
capacity’.
Black did not have the kind of equipment we have today. But
his discoveries had important consequences and paved the way for his
illustrious disciple, James Watt, to make further progress. Even today, we find
scientists using simple equipment and simple ideas to make important
discoveries.
[70] Alfred D Hershey
(1908-1997)
He used a Kitchen Blender to make A
Great discovery
A virus consists of its DNA molecule, surrounded by several
protein molecules. Knowledge of this structure raised an important question. Is
the genetic material contained in proteins or in DNA molecules? The question
was solved by American scientist Alfred Hershey and his collaborator Martha
Chase. Interestingly, they used very simple equipment: the blender used in our
kitchens. Even today, their experiment is known as the ‘Blender Experiment’.
They used the blender to separate DNA from its protein
cover. It was that viruses grow in host cells. So Hershey injected the
separated proteins into host cells. Nothing happened! They then injected the
DNA contents into host cells. Sure enough, the viruses began to multiply.
Obviously the genetic material is contained in the DNA molecule. When a virus
attacks a host cell, its protein cover remains outside and only the DNA enters
the cell. Their simple experiment established this! When ideas are clear, even
simple equipment may sometimes be sufficient! Hershey was awarded Nobel Prize
in 1969 for this brilliant experiment, jointly with Delbruck and Luria. All
three of them are credited for establishing the basis of molecular biology.
[71] V N Shirodkar
(1899-1971)
His Stitch is famous all over the
world
REPEATED abortions are the worst thing that can happen to a
woman both physically and psychologically. Many woman with a weak uterus simply
cannot hold the foetus as it grows and gains weight. They keep suffering from
abortions because the muscles of their uterus are weak. Research in this field
was, therefore, badly needed. Dr Shirodkar invented an operation to support
these weak muscles. It is now known all over the world as Shirodkar’s stitch.
This is the only operation of its kind that can be performed
on a pregnant woman. Not only the operation, but the equipment needed for
performing it is known after Shirodkar. He was so skilled that the video tapes
of operations performed by him on fallopian tubes for family planning are shown
the world over! Shirodkar was unmatched for operations for pro-lapse uterus.
He went to London for higher studies in surgery after
completing his medical education in India under adverse conditions. He returned
to India because he believed strongly in serving his motherland. Thousands of
unfortunate women were blessed with motherhood because of his skills and
invention. The Government of India honoured him with a ‘Padmabhushan’.
[72] Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
He Postulated the Existence of the
Unconscious Mind
IT was known that the human mind influences body functions.
We know that patients with a strong desire to live respond, often remarkably,
to medical treatment, while it is difficult to cure patients in a depressed
mood. But in the absence of clinical records, it was difficult to formulate a
theory. This is precisely what Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician and
psychoanalyst, did.
Freud had a large practice and he kept detailed records of
his patients. He observed that symptoms of his patients could be related to
repressed memories and wishes, especially those related to sex. Surprisingly,
memories and wishes repressed even in childhood could be related to sex. The
important contribution of Freud is that he postulated the existence of the
unconscious mind. He was then able to forward the famous idea that recollected
parts of dreams are symbols of the activities of this unconscious mind during
sleep, when conscious self-control is suspended.
All of Freud’s ideas are not necessarily valid today. His
methods of psychoanalysis have been improved upon substantially. Freud
exaggerated the role played by sex. Still, no one can deny him his place as a
pioneer in this field.
[73] Yellapragada Subbarao
(1896-1948)
He discovered a dozen Life-Saving
Drugs
SIXTY years ago, there were no antibiotics to save people
from deadly diseases. When one such disease of the intestine, ‘sprue’, took the
life of Subbarao’s brother, he decided to devote his life to discovering life
saving drugs. Despite poverty, he went to America with hardly any money, did
many odd jobs and completed his medical education.
True to his resolve, Subbarao discovered many life saving
drugs. He knew deficiency to vitamin B-12 (Folic Acid) causes several diseases.
Subbarao succeeded in making Folic Acid in the laboratory in collaboration with
others he discovered Aureomycine. He was the first to discover Gramicidin but
didn’t get credit for it as he failed to announce it promptly. Subbarao
discovered Methotrexate, a medicine against cancer, and Hetrazan, the cure for
elephantiasis.
All students of biochemistry know of Subbarao for his
pioneering work on proteins. This is now textbook material. Subbarao’s
discoveries were not mere curiosities these medicines could be mass produced.
Had he lived a full life, he would have discovered many more medicines. But one
wonders why he wasn’t awarded the Nobel Prize!
[74] Hans Albrecht Bethe
(1906-2005)
He showed how Energy is produced in
Stars
WE get energy from the sun. It is this solar energy that
supports life on earth. But from where does the sun get this energy? It, say,
we imagine the sun to be a coal furnace, its fuel would be exhausted in a few
centuries. And we know life has existed on earth for at least one billion
years!
This puzzle was solved by Bethe, a German physicist now
settled in America. He postulated that the energy of the sun is generated in
nuclear reactions. Four nuclei of the hydrogen atom (that is, four protons)
combine to form the nucleus of helium. However, the mass of a helium nucleus is
less than that of four protons. The difference is released as energy according
to Einstein’s equation, E=mc^(2). Such a reaction can take place only in the
interior of stars where temperature could be of the order of twenty million
degrees C.
The sun is composed
mainly of hydrogen in the plasma state. The nuclear reaction converting
hydrogen to helium can go on for a few billion years! Hans Bethe was awarded
the Nobel Prize for physics in 1967 for this discovery.
[75] Fred Hoyle
(1915-2001)
He proposed Refreshingly Original
Hypotheses
CREATION of the universe has always been a puzzle. One
hypothesis says eight to nine billion years ago, the entire mass of the
universe was concentrated at one point. Then there was a big bang that created
elementary particles, chemical elements and stars, in that order. Many
scientists are inclined to accept this view.
Fred Hoyle, the British astrophysicist, disagrees. He says
the universe has been always like this. The births and death of stars are local
fluctuations. Bulk of the universe remains unchanged! Another hypothesis of
Hoyle is that large biological molecules like proteins were not made on earth,
but were sprinkled on earth’s atmosphere as they passed through tails of
comets! Miller’s experiment can create amino acids, but time has not been
enough for creation of proteins. His third hypothesis is that viruses too are
likewise sprinkled on the atmosphere. Eventually they settle on the surface to
bring unknown diseases.
Hoyle’s theories are not universally accepted. But it takes
courage to propose theories contradicting established opinions. Hoyle,
consistent and honest to his views, has contributed handsomely to
astrophysicist. A popular science writer, Hoyle won the prestigious Kalinga
award in 1969.
[76] Amedeo Avogadro
(1776-1856)
He proposed that most Substances are
Composed of Molecules
AS Dalton postulated his famous theory, an important
question arose. How many atoms are there in, say, a spoonful of water, or in an
inflated balloon? Remember atoms are not visible to the naked eye or even under
a powerful optical microscope! Can one answer this question?
The Italian scientist Avogadro provided a brilliant answer.
He postulated that equal volumes of all gases contain an equal number of
molecules. Unbelievable! How can the same sack contain an equal number of
pumpkins, apples or grains of sand? The clue lies in the fact the actual volume
occupied by the molecules is negligible. The volume that we see results from
the fact that fast-moving molecules of the gas bang against walls of container
and generate pressure. The same number molecules to generate the same pressure.
Avogadro made another discovery. He distinguished between atoms and molecules
and proposed that most substances are composed of molecules rather than atoms.
Avogadro’s discoveries had major consequences for physics
and chemistry. Today we know the significance of Avogadro number 6*103!
Moreover, the confusion between atoms and molecules, atomic weight was cleared
once for all.
[77] V M Ghatge
(1908-1991)
He built Airplanes with little
Industrial Infrastructure
THE world of today is dominated by science and technology.
At the time of independence, India had hardly any industrial base. Manufacture
of heavy industrial machines, fabrication of motor cars, railway engines or
tanks was hardly possible. It was in this era that Ghatge laid the foundations
of aircraft industry in India.
Ghatge specialized in aerodynamics and aircraft structures.
He was mainly responsible for designing, developing and also test-flying a
troop-carrying glider. Ghatge also designed ht-2 trainer aircraft, a two-seater
Pushpak aircraft, an ultralight aircraft for training pilots in flying clubs,
the krishak aircraft for agricultural purposes and the trainer kiran aircraft.
His interest was not limited to the age-old propeller aircrafts. A man with
vision, he knew the coming the coming age would be dominated by jet engine
capable of giving a thrust of 2,500 pounds.
In a country that is yet to develop a wide, reliable
industrial base, building anything sophisticated poses problems.
Non-availability of high quality parts, advanced metallurgy, and even
accurately machined ball bearings can stall projects. Ghatge built his
aircrafts in such an era. He was given a ‘Padmabhushan’.
[78] Charles Darwin
(1809-1882)
He said struggle for survival leads
to Evolution of Life.
THE variety of plant and animal life is astonishingly rich.
It is a hard job to list various plants and animals and classify them. Has life
been always like this? Or has been changing all the time? Some believed life on
earth has always been like this. Others opined that organs and characteristics
not in use slowly disappear, while those found considerably useful become more
pronounced in the next generations!
Darwin had evidence to disagree with both. He found that no
two members of the same species are exactly alike. Moreover, there is a
continuous struggle for food and survival. A member born with a characteristic
that helps it to survive has a better chance of survival. Its progeny survives
better and soon replaces others who die. This is how plants and animals have
evolved and are evolving even today.
Even the scientific community did not accept this view
easily. Darwin was ridiculed in public. But as more evidence accumulated, it
became obvious that Darwin was essentially right.
Today it is accepted that the ‘origin of species’ and
‘descent of man’ proposed by Darwin is one of the greatest discoveries of
modern times!
[79] Jagdish Chandra Bose
(1858-1935)
Credit for Discovering Radio
Communication goes to him.
ONE hundred years ago, it was known that light is
electromagnetic waves. Infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and gamma rays
were soon added to the spectrum. But could you have electromagnetic rays with a
wavelength of, say, 10mm? If yes, would they display the same properties as
light?
Questions like these remained.
The answers were provided by Jagdish Chandra Bose. He
generated electromagnetic waves of a wavelength 5 to 25mm and demonstrated that
they show the same phenomena like reaction, double refraction and polarization.
His equipment was extremely simple, like pressed jute fibers or books with
laminated pages. Bose also found that in animal tissues stimulation produces
electrical excitation as well as change in form. Stimulation by light in nerves
or retina produces electrical.
He showed even vegetable tissues under stimuli like
application of heat, electrical shocks, chemicals, drugs, etc. produce similar
electrical responses. Marconi is generally credited with discovery of radio
waves. But evidence has come to light to show credit should have gone to Bose.
Unfortunately, India and Bose were deprived of a Nobel Prize.
[80] J V Narlikar
(1938-)
He said the universe has always been
in a steady state
HOW the universe was created in an intricate question. While
many believe in the ‘Big Bang’ theory, astrophysicist like Hoyle, Narlikar and
others support the ‘steady state’ theory, proposing that the universe is
essentially steady, and that birth and death of stars are local fluctuations.
Proposing a hypothesis is only a beginning. It has to be
equipped with the necessary frame-work of mathematics and observational
evidence. Narlikar has played a role in generating this frame-work. Of late,
the group has proposed a somewhat revised model. The steady state universe
undergoes oscillations of expansion and contractions over a short
(astronomically) period, while exhibiting expansion over a longer period.
Narlikar contributed substantially to this new version. It his own words, ‘It
is like the prices of vegetables. They do show rises and falls over 50 years
the prices have been rising’.
Narlikar has been a champion of popularizing science. He has
written stories, novels, even serious books, in a simple language. He has
established the Inter University center for Astronomy and Astrophysics for
research workers in the field. A recipient of many awards, Narlikar’s most
prestigious award is the frame and immense popularity he enjoys.
[81] A P J Abdul Kalam
(1931-)
He catapulated India into the Space
age
ONE of the laboratories of NASA in America prominently
displays soldiers using rockets in a battle. Curiously enough, these soldiers
are Indians because the scene is from Tipu’s battle against the British. Akter
the battle of Turukhanahally, the British captured more than 700 rockets and
900 subsystems of rockets! Would Tipu’s dream ever become a reality?
Abdul kalam did it. Starting from nothing, he and his team
successfully built and tested missiles like Agni, Prithvi, Akash, Trishul and
nag. Missiles of all types, including the long-range (5000 km) missile, bear
eloquent testimony to his engineering skills and creativity. Equally important,
under his able and inspired leadership, India has developed technology for
multistage rockets to put an indigenously built satellite in orbit. India can
now sit with America and Russia without awe!
The contribution of Abdul Kalam stab=nd out on several
counts. Kalam and his team had to develop all this technology indigeneously,
since rocket technology is a very closely guarded defence secret. Kalam had the
confidence to declare the launch well in advance and show it ‘live’ on
Doordarshan. The government of India honoured him with a Bharat Ratna.
[82] Guglielmo Marconi
(1974-1937)
He is created with the discover of
radio-Communication
PROGRESS of human civilization depends on how fast and
accurate its communication system works. Covering the distance on foot, on
horseback, sending letters in a motor car or by a railway train, sending
telegrams and radio signals are milestone in this in this progress. The Italian
scientist, Marconi, is credited with the last one.
Soon after Marconi learnt about the discovery of
electromagnetic waves of long wavelengths, he tried to convert them into
electrical signals. He succeeded in sending and receiving signals across
distances. Marconi began by sending signals across the English channel and soon
succeeded in establishing communication to Australia. He used the apparatus
invented by the French scientist Branley for converting electromagnetic waves
into electric current. Later Marconi succeeded in establishing short wave
communication.
Marconi’s invention had important consequences.
Communication could now be with the speed of light. The world began to shrink. Radiowaves,
like light, travel in straight lines and could not be expected to overcome
impasses imposed by the earth’s curvature. However, they are reflected by the
ionosphere on top of earth’s atmosphere. Strangely, its existence was yet to be
discovered! Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1909.
[83] Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)
His theory of Relativity has earned
him Great Fame
EINTEIN was the most brilliant scientist this century.
Photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, Bose-Einstein statistics are only some
of his great discoveries. While is awarded the Nobel prize for photo-electric
effect, his name has always been equated with the theory of relativity. The two
have almost become synonyms!
Einstein postulated that the velocity of light in vacuum is
maximum and also constant. Nothing can travel faster than that. Also, the
velocity of light is independent of the velocity of its source. As a result of
these and other postulates, the mass of a body moving with speeds comparable to
that of light increases as it moves faster. Also the time dilates. As a
consequence of relativity, mass and energy are interconvertible according to
the famous equation E=mc^2. Einstein showed that a massless ray of light
passing close to the massive sun is attracted towards it. Confirmation of this
was obtained during the total solar eclipse in 1919.
Newton’s laws are still valid in daily life and in
engineering. Einstein’s relativistic equations are needed when one deals with
atomic particles or astrophysics. It is fortunate that Einstein postulated
relativity just when atomic particles were being discovered.
[84] Amartya Sen
(1933-)
He asserted that economics is a
‘Social’ science
CAN economics be studied totally objectively, ignoring
compulsions of social needs and aspirations? Many economics opine that any
science, including economics, must be studied objectively. Amartya Sen
disagrees, and proposes a somewhat different economics, keeping social aspects
at the centre, especially for developing countries.
For example, he asserts famines are basically artificial and
man-made. Sen proposes that relief measures be aimed at making people
self-reliant and capable of withstanding the next disaster on their own. Relief
should not degenerate into giving out doles to reduce the suffering on hand.
Sen claims the concept and measurement of ‘poverty line’ can only be
subjective. The absence of a properly enclosed bathrooms can drive a
middle-class. Westerner crazy, whereas his counterpart in India will think
nothing of it! Even the meaning of welfare state has a strong social context!
Sen does not stop at giving descriptive examples. He
provides methods for measuring poverty lines, explains pitfalls of studying
economics only from a Western angle, and shows one can opt for one for several
possibilities existing between complete nationalization and total
privatization. Sen was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1998 for giving new
dimensions to economics.
[85] Jean Henri Dunant
(1828-1910)
Founder of the International Red
Cross
HAVE you seen ambulances with loud sirens speeding past
other vehicles? They bear a red cross. These vehicles have the right of the
way. Naturally! Ambulances are trying to reach sick and the wounded, as fast as
possible, to the nearest hospital for immediate medical treatment. ‘Red Cross’
was conceived and founded by the Swiss humanitarian, Jean Henri Dunant. He was
moved by the suffering of soldiers in the bloody battle of Solferino, which led
to 40,000 casualties. Dunant participated in relief work and also proposed in
his book ‘Memories of solferino’ that an international agency be set up to care
for the sick and wounded without consideration of nationality, race, cast or
creed. Only humanitarian considerations should prevail! His suggestion was
brought into reality by the Geneva convention. He also founded the Young Men’s
Christian Association, with branches all over the world!
International Red Cross now operates on a much wider scale.
Apart from wounded soldiers, it provides relief to victims of natural disasters
like floods, earthquakes and famine. Jean Henri Dunant was awarded the Nobel
Prize for peace in 1901.
[85] Hans Geiger
(1882-1945)
He made Prospecting for radioactive
material easy
THE discovery of radioactivity raised an important problem.
How does one detect the presence of radioactive material? Prospecting for
minerals containing radioactive materials was equally important. The
photographic plate is not very useful for this purpose. The process of exposing
and developing plates is cumbersome. Besides, one risks the possibility of
getting entire stock fogged!
The difficulty was solved by two German scientists, Geiger
and Muller. A glass tube fitted with a metallic wire along its axis is filled
with a certain mixture of gases at low pressure. High voltage is supplied to
the wire. As high velocity particles or gamma rays from radioactive material
enter the tube, they ionize the gas. Ions thus produced are attracted to
opposite electrodes, setting up a feeling current. Amplifying and measuring
this current serves to detect and assess the strength of radioactive material
around.
The Geiger counter is easy to operate and carry. The tube is
fitted in a metal casing of the size of an electric torch and the size of an
electric torch and the rest of the system is fitted in a box that can be
carried easily. One can carry it anywhere and prospect for radioactive
material.
[86] Sir Francis Galton
(1822-1911)
He found no two Human Beings have the
same Fingerprints
FINGERPRINTS enable us to apprehend thieves. Illiterate
people give the impression of their left hand’s thumb rule as their signature.
All this makes sense because the British scientist Galton discovered that no
two individuals have the same fingerprints. Measuring human beings was a
passion for Galton. He measured their chest, waist and even the girth of their
arms. His subjects were schoolchildren, prisoners, and inmates of lunatic
asylums!
Galton’s achievements were not limited to finger prints. He
invented several instruments to plot meteorological data and was successful in
charging weather over vast areas. He was instrumental in establishing the
meteorological office and also the National Physical Laboratory. He was curious
to know if intelligence is inherited and tried to assess the effect of
environment on development. For this purpose, he invented methods to measure
intelligence in 9,000 subjects. Galton is considered the founder of eugenics, a
term he coined.
Galton’s data was large and had to interpreted
statistically. He discovered several methods in statistics, including
correlational calculus. He is often called the father of modern statistics.
Galton toured the uncharted African continent, then known as the black
continent, and collected valuable information.
[87] Anil Kakodkar
(1943-)
His superb engineering skills made
the Bomb possible
In May 1998, India exploded the series of nuclear bombs at
Pokhran. In a flash the world knew about India’s ability to explode
indigenously developed atom bombs, hydrogen bombs and low-yield nuclear devices
that can be used in a battlefield.
Anil Kakodkar, director of BARC, played a significant role
in all these developments, starting from designing and building the Dhruva
reactor, which makes most of our plutonium. The plutonium core used in atomic
weapons may be as small as cricket ball, but getting the material, machining it
to perfection and setting up a reliable triggering mechanism requires a
combination of basic sciences and the most sophisticated engineering ability.
The hydrogen bomb also demands high pressure physics and engineering. Pits have
to be made with skill and care to ensure that radiation does not come above
ground and affect the safety of villages around. Achievement of all this is a
tribute to kakodkar’s abilities, since they involved closely guarded defence
secrets, not available on sale! It is only an engineer plus scientist like
kakodkar, bent on doing something new and on doing it to perfection, who can
achieve this glory!
[88] Brian David Josephson
(1940-)
He found Electrons can make a Tunnel
and go through it
CODUCTORS let an electric current flow through them,
insulators stop the current from flowing, while superconductors allow
electricity to flow without offering any resistance, but only at extremely low
temperatures. Semiconductors let currents pass only under special
circumstances. Obviously inserting an insulator in an electric circuit will
stop the current at once, thought many. Not really, said the British scientist
Josephson. A strange phenomenon takes place if you insert a very thin film of
an insulator in an electric circuit. Electrons tunnel through the thin film and
the circuit is not broken! Electrons seem to be capable of building these tunnels
to pass through them. Esaki of Japan had reported similar tunneling of
semiconductors and Giaever (USA) had seen tunneling occur in superconductors.
But it was Josephson who applied quantum mechanics and explained how the
phenomenon takes place.
Josephson’s discovery led to the development led to the
famous Josephson junction, which is used in large and complex integrated
circuits to speed the passage of signals by electron tunneling. These chips are
a thousand times faster than ordinary silicon chips. Josephson’s discovery
revolutionized solid state devices, besides giving new insights into solid
state theory. He won the Nobel Prize in 1973.
[89] Raj Reddy
(1934-)
He is The King of Artificial
Intelligence
COMPUTERS are often compared with the human brain, but in
reality the most advanced computer can only be compared with the brain of an
earthworm! A computer can handle intricate calculations involving big numbers,
but it can hardly think logically learn from its own experience, and totally unseen
problems. This still remains the prerogative of the human brain!
Scientists are typing to build such a computer. In other
words they are in search of artificial intelligence. The leading figure in this
field is Raj Reddy, dean, Computer Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, USA.
Reddy created a new discipline: “Inter-relation between man and technology.” He
is also busy trying to build computers capable of recognizing and executing
commands given by a human voice! His dream is to build computers that can be
linked with any other in the world to generate a digital library.
When Reddy succeeds, you can get excellent education at your
doorstep. His authority in the field of information technology has been
recognized the world over. Francois Mitterrand, former President of France,
bestowed on him ‘La Legion d’Honneur (Legion of Honour), the highest award in
france!
[90]Jonas Salk
(1914-1995)
He aimed to Eradicate Polio
WE have seen many children disabled due to polio. These
unfortunate victims are crippled for life. While nothing much can be done after
the attack, a person can be immunized by two oral doses of polio vaccine.
Chances of polio striking babies thus immunized are extremely low.
The polio vaccine was developed by Jonas Salk, an American
physician and microbiologists. Polio is caused by a virus. The problem was to
prepare a vaccine containing these viruses to teach our body to make
anti-bodies against polio. Salk collected many samples from spinal fluids of
polio patients, cultured them to obtain polio viruses, and treated them with
formaldehyde to destroy the ability of this virus to inflict polio. He had to
work hard along these lines until he developed a safe vaccine.
Salk had ‘courage based on confidence, and confidence based
on experience’ to administer this vaccine to himself and his family. Polio
vaccine is now easy to administer. No injection is necessary; just a few drops
have to be given orally.
Salk refused to patent his vaccine. “My research is for
people! Could you patent the Sun?” he asked.
[91] Glenn Seaborg
(1912-1999)
He discovered Transuranic elements
AS almost all chemical elements were discovered, it was
believed the span of elements was limited from hydrogen, the lightest to
uranium, the heaviest. Glenn Seaborg, the American chemist, demonstrated the
existence of transuranic elements. He also studied their chemical properties and
showed they fit beautifully in Mendeleev’s periodic table!
It was known that bombarding uranium with neutrons leads to
fusion. Seaborg selected proper energy for the bombarding neutrons and obtained
the next element, plutonium, with an atomic number 93. This was the first
transuranic element to be produced in the laboratory. The yield, however, was
only microscopic. Moreover most of these transuranic elements are unstable,
making their detection and isolation extremely difficult. Even then Seaborg and
his team discovered nine out of the first 13 transuranic elements to be
discovered. He also showed plutonium could be used as fissionable material in
atomic reactors.
Seaborg’s work led to the discovery of several radioactive
isotopes useful in diagnosing and treating diseases. His work also helped in
obtaining them in large quantities. Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1951
and element no 106 was given his name Seaborgium!
\
[92] Thomas Robert Malthus
(1766-1834)
He was the Pioneer in Studying the
Population Problem
WHY do populations increase? Why do they stop increasing?
Economics were earlier pinning to find out reasons behind waxing and waning of
populations. Remember, in those days, techniques for surveying were primitive,
statistical methods were not yet developed and economics was in its infancy!
Malthus, a British economist sought answers to these
questions. Population implies mouths to be fed, which increases rapidly, that
is in geometric proportion. Resources, on the other hand increases slowly, that
is in arithmetic proportion. In his ‘Essay on the Principle of Population,’
Malthus argues that when resources can no longer support population, natural
checks like famine, epidemics, floods, earthquakes, war, etc. control the
population to prevent the situation from going out of hand. Malthus advocated
population control and proposed methods like moral restraint and increasing the
age of marriage.
Malthus is no longer accepted totally. Rise of technology
has led to improved methods of agriculture, and to an increase in cultivable
land. Man the technologist has been able to increase resources much faster than
the arithmetic proportion. But Malthus was the pioneer in studying this
question. Equally importantly, his thoughts influenced Darwin to seek the
connection between struggle for survival and evolution.
[93] Anders Celsius
(1701-1744)
He invented the Thermometer which we
use every day
ACCURATE measurements are extremely important in science. It
is equally important standardize the measuring tools to ensure uniformity in
scientific literature. That is why measurements of time distance, weight and
many other physical entities have been standardized over the past hundred
years. The Swedish scientist Anders Celsius standardized the measurements of
temperature. He proposed that two points, which normally do not change, should
be used as fixed points. He chose the melting of ice and the boiling of pure
water at normal pressure as such fixed points. Curiously enough, Celsius chose
the boiling of water to be zero degrees Celsius and the melting of ice as 100
degrees Celsius! His disciple Martin Stromer inverted this scale eight years
later! Celsius filled mercury in a glass capillary tube to prepare his
thermometer. For all practical purposes, this is the scale used all over the
world.
Achievements of Celsius were not limited to making a
standard thermometer. He studied several subjects. He gave conclusive proof to
Issac Newton’s idea that the earth was flattened at the poles. He pioneered
attempts to gauge the magnitudes of stars in the constellation of Aries,
studied the falling water level of the Baltic sea and built Sweden’s first
observatory at Upsala.
[94] John Logie Baird
(1888-1946)
He invented Television using Scrap Material
He invented Television using Scrap Material
TODAY we see programmes from all over the world on our TV
screen. Several of these programmes are telecast ‘live’. All this had been made
possible because of unprecedented progress in electronics. Now there is little
doubt that our horizons are widening and the world is shrinking fast!
TV was invented by Baird a Scottish electrical engineer,
when electronics was still in its infancy. The young Baird was pinning to
invent a mechanism for transmitting and receiving pictures. Baird was so
resourceful that in less than twelve years he succeeded in putting together
such a mechanism, using scrap material from his attic! He applied successfully
for a patent! Later he invented the color TV and managed to telecast programmes
across the Atlantic. Baird also invented video recording and a kind of fax
machine. That he could achieve all this when electronics was yet to blossom
fully speaks volumes of his resourcefulness. Baird was a great inventor. He
invented fibre-optics. He was able to conceive and put together the RADAR ahead
of many others. He pioneered ‘noctovision,’ a system for seeing at night using
infrared rays.
[95] Christian Barnard
(1922-2001)
He performed the first Heart
Transplant
ORGAN transplant to replace a damage one is not easy. The
human body rejects anything foreign, even a foreign tissue! Moreover, heart
transplant is the most difficult of transplants. You can donate one of your two
kidneys, but you have only one heart! Obviously the surgeon is compelied to
choose a healthy heart within minutes of its donor’s death and transplant it
almost immediately to a waiting, needy patient.
This difficult operation was performed by the South African
surgeon Christian Barnard. He performed this transplant on a patient at Groote
Schour hospital in Cape Town. The operation was successful but the patient died
eighteen days later of double pneumonia. The disease was probably contracted as
a result of immune-suppressive medicines administered to him to prevent his
body from rejecting the foreign heart.
Heart transplants are not performed routinely, even though
they have become some-what safer. It is refreshing to know that within four
years of Barnard’s first heart transplant, Dr G B Parulekar performed a
successful heart transplant at Mumbai’s KEM hospital. Had he received adequate resources and timely support, the
honour of performing the first heart transplant could well have come to India.
[96] Linus Carl Pauling
(1888-1946)
He understood the Nature of The
Chemical Bond
WITH the unveiling of atomic structure, scientists began to
understand how and why atoms acquire chemical properties. Obviously, electrons
orbiting the nucleus decide chemical properties. But this mix of classical and
quantum ideas could not explain fully the nature of chemical bond. The American
chemist Linus Pauling achieved this breakthrough. He went beyond the well-known
ionic bond where the positively charged ion of one element gets bonded with the
negatively charged ion of another element, or the covalent bond where two atoms
share their electrons co-operatively. Pauling proposed his now-famous concept
of hybridization where some electrons from (say) d, s, or p orbitals hybridise
to generate a bond! His book, ‘The Nature of Chemical Bond’ is respected like
the Bible.
Crick and Watson, trying to figure out the structure of DNA
molecule, depended on it for working out bond-lengths. Pauling was also a
champion of medical uses of Vitamin-C. He was awarded Nobel Prize for chemistry
in 1954 and another one for peace in 1952. He is the only individual to get two
Nobel Prizes, both unshared!
[97] William Thomson
(Lord) Kelvin
(1824-1907)
He Discovered the Absolute Scale of
Temperature
SCIENTIFIC progress depends critically on the availability
of reliable and accurate measurements. The Celsius scale solved this problem
for phenomena related to daily life. However, the melting and boiling points of
water are not universal constants. Moreover, the Celsius scale has no
theoretical basis. A temperature scale with a firm theoretical basis was
proposed by an Irish scientist William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin.
He noticed that the temperature of a body was related to the
motion of molecules. Higher temperature implies more vigorous motion. He
proposed absolute zero to be the temperature where all molecular stops
completely. This was Kelvin’s absolute zero or minus 273 o C. Kelvin proposed
that on this scale water freezes at 273o Absolute and boils at 373o A (or
Kelvin). Obviously, attaining absolute zero is impossible! In scientific
literature and in theoretical equations one uses absolute temperatures.
Lord Kelvin’s discoveries were not limited to this scale of
temperature of his work in thermodynamics. He developed faraday’s ideas to
present a theory of magnetism. He also built several instruments for
measurement of electricity, invented an improved compass, a tide gauge, and
simpler methods of fixing a ship’s position at sea. He is, however, remembered
for absolute scale of temperature.
[98] Dimitri Mendeleev
(1834-1907)
He found All Chemical Elements and
formed an Ordered system
THE universe has 32 stable and many more unstable chemical
elements. It is a formidable job to remember chemical properties of all these
elements. But Russian scientist Dimitri Mendeleev could see a pattern. If
elements with similar properties were arranged to form one group, and elements
were arranged according to weights like cards in a game of patience, one could
get a periodic tables of elements. It looks simple but it is a great discovery.
If the 60 odd elements known by them were arranged like in a game of patience,
one variably got a mismatch! But Mendeleev pinned his faith in chemical
properties, ignoring atomic weights which were being revised constantly. He
left a ‘gap’ at the place of mismatch and moved the erring element to the next
column until it fitted. He had to leave several gaps, all of which were filled
correctly by elements discovered later. Gallium, scandium and germanium were
discovered in his life time!
Atomic structure was yet to be discovered. Isotopes were
unknown. Still the Mendeleev the chemist, prepared his famous periodic table.
All the gaps were filled later with the little adjustment. This is called
vision!
[99] Har Gobind Khorana
(1922-2011)
He Synthesized the First Wholly
Artificial Gene
WE know that entire genetic material is contained in DNA.
Experiments had shown that genes govern protein structure. However, it was
still a wonder as to how this complexity is conveyed in just a few ‘alphabets’.
In other words, the genetic code had not yet been broken!
The task was accomplished by Khorana. He was able to show
how only four nucleic acids could generate a genetic code. He used his skill in
chemistry to synthesize an artificial gene with just one ‘alphabet’. He
injected it in the mechanism that makes proteins and showed that it generated
an elementary protein! He also showed a pattern of three nucleotides – a
triplet – specifies a particular amino acid. Another of his discoveries was
that some of the triplets serve as ‘punctuation marks’ in the code Khorana also
synthesized the gene in the retina responsible for converting light into electrical
signals.
Khorana’s work helped crack the genetic code. He proved that
three ‘alphabets’ form a codon. For his achievement, Khorana was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1968 along with fellow American marshall Nirenberg, who did
similar work.
[100] Johannes Gutenberg
(1398-1468)
He Invented Printing using Movable
Metal Type
FIVE centuries ago, wooden blocks with figures and letters
carved on them were used for printing. Since the same block could not be refused, every
page required a separate block, making printing cumbersome and expensive. Only
the very rich could afford books at the time!
Gutenberg, a German technologist, invented a way out. He
cast a movable metal type, one for every character. All the required types were
set in lines held firmly in a tray. An ink roller applied ink and impressions
were obtained on paper. The types could be pulled out and re-used for setting
the next page. A large press could handle several trays at a time, printing
many pages simultaneously. Gutenberg used this method to inaugurate the new era
by printing several copies of the Holy Bible.
Gutenberg’s movable type was one of the most important
inventions. It gave a boost to literacy and to the spread of knowledge.
Gutenberg’s printing press was also important in making the
Renaissance possible! A similar process happened in India around a hundred
years ago. Even today, with powerful electronic media gaining strength every
day, the print medium retains its central place. We are reading this column
thanks to him!
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