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Person Conti...
[101] Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey
(1903-1972)
He discovered the Origins of Man
DARWIN claimed with considerable evidence that ‘man’ evolved from humanlike apes. But these conjectures can never be ‘proved’ like a theorem in mathematics. If the conjecture is substantiated, as more evidence accumulates, its validity increases. Anyway the question was, when and where did man originate on earth?
Louis Leakey, a Kenyan archaeologists and his entire family addressed themselves to this question. Careful excavation in Oldural gorge in Tanzania led Leakey to conclude that man originated in Africa around a million years ago. Later Richard Leakey (son of Louis) uncovered on the shores of Lake Turkana in East Africa remains of a boy living more than 1.5 million years ago.
This work is never easy. It requires decades of patient and careful excavation. More, one hardly uncovers a complete skeleton. It is necessary to determine from a fragment of a bone, a piece of skull, whether it is a human bone, how ancient it is, before any guess is offered. Only an archaeologists well versed in anatomy, anthropology, geology, and other disciplines can make a correct guess. That is why Leakey’s work is held so high.
[102] Louis Braille
(Jan 4, 1809-1852)
He invented A Script for the Blind
CAN blind people read? We all say ‘no,’ since vision is so important for reading. But Louis Braille, a French inventor who was himself blind, invented the script which the blind can ‘read’! An accident made Braille blind when he was only three. He was educated in ‘National Institute of Blind Youth’ of Paris, where cumbersome texts with large raised letters were used. At the institute, Braille also ‘saw’ a demonstration, by an army officer, of a code for night communications. This code used raised dots and dashes. But it was both cumbersome and complex.
Louis Braille, at the young age of fifteen, invented a script for the blind. Braille’s script makes ingenious use of a cell of six dots each. These are embossed on a thick paper. A blind person can feel each cell with his fingertip and recognize it. Moving his fingers quickly across cells, a blind person can learn to read quite rapidly. Braille also adapted his script to write music notations and for mathematics.
Even after 150 years, Braille script remains a script used the world over. It is one of the great inventions of modern times.
[103] Christopher L Sholes
(1820-1890)
He invented The Typewriting Machine
ONE can hardly function without a typewriting machine. Just press a button and an appropriate character will be typed on the paper in the machine. Even if you are using a computer, you are still using almost the same keyboard!
The first practical typewriting machine was invented by an American inventor, Christopher Sholes. Five years later he brought out an improved version. Two systems in a typewriting machine are important. The inventor had to design both of them. At the press of a button, a type mounted on a thin metal liver should strike the ink-ribbon, so that an impression is made on paper. With the job done, the lever must return to its original position. Second is the keyboard. The letters and all other character are so arranged that one can learn a ‘touch system.’ You can then type without having to keep looking at the keyboard.
The typewriting machine revolutionized the business world. Within no time offices were equipped with typewriting machines. Moreover, these machines could be adapted to suit any language. Several companies now manufacture them under different trade names, but the basic structure remains the same!
[104] Noam Chomsky
(1928-)
He Showed the Structure of Language is Innate
IS there any relation between the science of linguistics (science of language) and psychology? Noam Chomsky, a modern American linguistic, said ‘Yes,’ and explained the connection clearly. In fact, he succeeded in giving shape to the new science of psycholinguistics.
It is common knowledge that every person is equipped to learn at least one language, his mother tongue. But it would be risky to argue that nature equips his genes and brain to learn that particular language. For, if a baby born into (say) a Marathi family is transferred soon after birth to Paris, London or Tokyo, the baby will learn that new language as its mother tongue! What, then, is the specific linguistic endowment of nature? It seemed an impasse. But Noam Chomsky found an answer. Chomsky argued the central core structure of all languages is very similar.
Nature blesses us with the ability to learn this structure just as a weaver bird knows how to build its beautiful nest! This core structure is innate! The differences between languages are learnt through environment! Chomsky also presented his concepts of a ‘transformational grammar.’ This is yet another example of the power of a multidisciplinary approach.
[105] Jean Marlin Charcot
(1825-1893)
This Founder of Hypnotism Understood Neurotic Behaviour
THE extent to which mind controls physiological activities was demonstrated by the French physician Charcot. He was considered the world’s greatest neurologist and his clinic at La Salpetriere was the “Mecca of Neurology” to which students came from many countries. Even Freud was his student.
Charcot is the pioneer of hypnosis and hysteria. His demonstrations of hysterical phenomena and lectures on hysteria and hypnosis were famous. Hysteria is a mental disorder having physical manifestations of interest to a neurologist. Charcot believed hysteria was the result of a weak neurological system, which was hereditary. It is set off by any traumatic event like an accident. He also believed strongly that only hysterics could be hypnotized. Charcot also discovered important arteries in the brain responsible for blood haemorrhage. He discovered degeneration of ligaments and joint surfaces due to lack of use and sensations, now known as Charcot’s joints.
Charcot is not accepted fully today. His circular arguments like “Only neurotics can be hypnotized because he is a neurotic” are clearly unscientific. But no one can deny him his place as a pioneer of hypnosis and hysteria!
[106] Hans Spemann
(1869-1941)
He founded The Science of Embryology
HOW does a fertilized egg differentiate into various organs and later develop into an embryo from which a fully grown organism is born? What happens if one of the two cells is destroyed at an early stage, or if cells destined to form a particular organ are transplanted into other areas?
Spemann, a German scientist showed that if, at an early stage in the growth of an amphibian, the egg is split and one of the two cells is removed, the other cell grows into a smaller but complete embryo. If one of the two cells is destroyed but not removed, the remaining cell develops into half an embryo! To see if the growth is really influenced by the neighboring cells, Spemann transplanted a definite area from one embryo into a definite area of another, he showed that a portion of the tissue which would have normally become (say) skin can develop into a nervous tissue if it is transplanted in that area.
Spemann’s work led to the foundation of embryology, a new branch of science. Spemann also developed delicate techniques of micro surgery. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935.
[107] E Shridharan
(1932-)
He Built A Technology Marvel, ‘The Konkan Railway’
BUILDING a railway line in a hilly region is not easy. The konkan area from Mumbai to Mangalore is such a challenging area. But E Shridharan built this railway line successfully.
It was a difficult task. All along the line, which is 760 kilometers long, Shridharan had to build 174 long bridges. The longest, more than two kilometers in length, is across the river Sharvari. The railway line also needed several tunnels. The karbude tunnel, which is nearly six-and-a-half kilometers long, is a technological marvel. Building bridges and making tunnels involves soil testing, proper designing, fabricating strong structures and making accurate alignments. It is worth noting that all this work was done indigenously, without any help from advance countries!
Even more importantly, Shridharan acquired all this skill and expertise indigenously. He was involved in setting up new railway lines from Quilon to Ernakulum and from Hasan to Mangalore. He was one of the main architects of India’s first Metro at Calcutta. When more than 125 spans of the Pamban bridge were washed away, Shridharan repaired all structures in record time. Shridharan has shown that India can do it!
[108] Narendra Karmarkar
(1955-)
He used Computers to solve problems of Daily life
WE know computers can work out a large number of arithmetical sums quite rapidly. But computers have to be told what to do and when! The main problem is whether it’s possible to use computers to solve intricate problems involving a few thousand real-life parameters.
This is what Karmarkar did. He invented a powerful new method that solves many complex problems faster and more efficiently than any previous methods. For example, his method could decide how to build economic telephone links in America between cities, so that STD calls can go from one city to any other. The number possibilities is large and picking the most economic one is difficult. Karmarkar’s method saved more than several crores of dollars. He worked with American Airlines to provide the best linkages between any two cities. His methods can cut fuel costs substantially. Karmarkar is now at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, setting up a new department of mathematics at the Institute to solve similar problems facing India.
[109] Wilder Penfield
(1891-1976)
He Pioneered Brain Surgery to make importantly Discoveries
WE all know many of our physiological activities are controlled by the brain. But how the does the brain function? Are there areas in the brain which govern different functions such as speech, motion or memory? Wilder Penfield, a Canadian neurosurgeon found some important answers.
Penfield was trying to treat patients suffering from intractable (difficult to control) epilepsy. It was known that before seizures, patients feel a “Direct Experience-an aura,” that is, some warning symptoms of seizures. He provided this area with mild electric currents on the brain and tried to locate the source of convulsion activity. He then tried to destroy or remove that bit of tissue. While his patients were fully conscious though anasthesized, he opened the skull and tried to pinpoint sources of their epilepsy (fits). This was the first experimental brain surgery. This technique was often successful.
These attempts led Penfield to an even more dramatic discovery. He discovered the temporal lobe, the area of the brain responsible for memory. He also developed a map of the brain and was able to show that fingers and tips have more nerve endings than arms and legs!
[110] Carothers Wallace
(1896-1937)
He invented Nylon and Synthetic Rubber
WE are so used to nylon, nylon fabrics and nylon parts in machine that we seldom pause to wonder who invented this useful polymer. Nylon the polymer and neoprene the synthetic rubber were invented by the American chemist, Carothers wanted to produce an inexpensive polymer that could be drawn into a fibre as strong as the expensive silk fibre which was then in use. He worked with most of the players known in his time. Finally, Carothers succeeded in producing nylon, a long chain polymer which can be extruded and drawn into long and strong fibre. During extrusion the molecules of nylon can be oriented parallel to each other so that lateral hydrogen bonding takes place. Carothers also strove to produce synthetic rubber. Neoprene is resistant to heat, light and most solvents.
These inventions had great impact on industry. Apart from clothing we are familiar with, nylon is used to make strong and light sails for boats. As it is strong and easy to machine, nylon can be used to make robust parts of gadgets. Neoprene gaskets are used in many machines for joining various parts and in vacuum systems.
[111] Miller Paul Herman
(1899-1965)
He synthesized DDT, The Great Insecticide
IF you want an insecticide, it must kill harmful insects without harming plants and higher animals. It must be inexpensive, chemically stable and easy to spray on insect colonies such as mosquitoes and insects pest that feed on agricultural crops. Miller the Swiss chemist synthesized such a wonderful chemical.
Miller synthesized DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro-ethane) which is highly poisonous to insects. It persists in body tissues ensuring that most insects are killed. DDT was tested with great success against the potato beetle. It was then mass produced and used when a typhus epidemic broken out in Italy. DDT was used with remarkable success to kill body lice which are carriers of this typhus. DDT has also been used to kill mosquitoes in an attempt to eradicate malaria.
Unfortunately, many insects soon developed a DDT resistant strain. For example, mosquitoes are no longer eliminated by DDT. Moreover, DDT is highly toxic and persists in environment and tissues, disturbing the food chain. These days many countries do not use DDT. However, it certainly had a profound effect on the health of the world. Miller was awarded the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1948.
[112] Charles Babbage
(1792-1871)
His Analytical Engine was the Forerunner of Modern Computers
CAN you think of a computer without electronic components? This is precisely what Babbage, a British inventor built. He made so many inventions that he was considered the most profound thinker and the brain was preserved for eventual dissection and study!
Babbage thought of performing calculations using a machine with several rotating, toothed discs. As the wheel in unit place completed one rotation, the next disc moved by one unit and so on. Using such devices which he called Analytical Machines or Difference Engines, Babbage was able to make lengthy calculations. His analytical engine, still incomplete, was big enough to fill one room! He was very fond of constructing tables of all types, a job for which he used his machine, which was indeed a forerunner of modern computers! To achieve this without electronics is a technological marvel.
Babbage was indeed a great inventor. He established the modern postal system including uniform postal rates. He invented the speedometer , a reliable signaling system for railways, the cowcatcher for locomotives, and the system of keys with levers so that a look would open only its specific key! What more could one man invent?
[113] Carl Gustav Jung
(1875-1961)
He improved upon Freudian Psychoanalysis
THE dawn of a new idea often dazzles the world. The very novelty attracts undue importance even in the scientific world. But the overbalance is soon rectified, and the concept is revised to acquire a realistic form. For example, Freud gave much importance to suppressed desires, especially sex-related ones, to formulate his psychoanalysis and psychotherapy.
Jung, the Swiss psychiatrist, was one of the leading colleagues of Freud who felt Freud had overemphasized the importance of suppressed sex desires in childhood. Jung believed that apart from suppressed desires, genetic, cultural and environment factors also play an important role. He proposed that the Freudian concept of the unconscious mind, however brilliant, was not adequate enough to explain a patient’s behaviour.
He presented several new ideas. For example, he showed humans can be classified as ‘introverts’ and ‘extroverts.’ He also demonstrated it was so easy to recognize the difference. The main job of a psychiatrist is to present the patient with reality and help him accept it. He proposed that each individual develops in a unique way and psychotherapy must help him in developing his full potential.
[114] Iravati Karve
(1905-1970)
An Anthropologist, she Interpreted Indian School History
ANTHROPOLOGY deals with human origins, their evolutions, and customs. In short it deals with evolution of cultures and civilization. Iravati Karve was a leading anthropologist who contributed substantially to the study of Indian schools history.
Karve studied anthropology, sociology and social psychology, and conducted excellent research in these multi-disciplinary areas. In one of her major findings she showed the concepts of 'varna' and 'jaati' were different. She also showed that 'chaturvarnya,' the system of four classes did not develop after society had stabilized. Rather, it was invented to weave various races and communities into one single fabric. Her research on human skulls and her treatise, 'Kinship organization in India' earned her work wide frame.
The monograph, 'Maharashtra: Land and people' (in English) and her book in Marathi on the culture of Marathi-speaking people are famous. Karve studied in detail the culture of 'konkanastha Chittapavan Brahmins.' She was invited by leading British and American universities to give lectures on her research. Even a monograph like 'Yugaant' presenting character sketches in Mahabharat is at once original, learned and lucid!
[115] Stephen J Gould
His Interpretation of Evolution is fascinating
WE all know living beings evolved from less complex organism to more complex ones. That was Darwin’s hypothesis anyway! But one still did know for sure whether evolution brings about physical changes rapidly, letting the organism take a long time to internalize them, or if it is a slow process. Remember, in this context ‘rapidly’ could mean over a few centuries!
American paleontologist Stephen J Gould examined this question from the archeological point of view. He was particularly fascinated by the evolution of ‘Panda’ whose wrist bones and thumb evolved to enable it pluck leaves from a tree. Gould proposed that slow evolutionary changes in Panda’s wrist and thumb would have been almost useless in the beginning for them to persist. On the other hand, rapid changes could have done the trick! These considerations led Gould to propose his famous hypothesis of ‘punctuated equilibrium.’
Apart from Panda’s thumb, Gould studied horse’s teeth and hen’s paws from similar point of view to strengthen his hypothesis. Gould is well-known as a popular science writer with an amazing gift to make complex concepts in science understandable to laymen.
[116] Samuel Finley Morse
(1791-1872)
He could send Messages faster than ever before
THESE days if we wish to send a message urgently we just ring up or use the fax. But until not so long ago these facilities did not exist. One had to send a telegram. Unfortunately, only a few post offices around the country offered this facility.
The American inventor Morse was toying with the idea of using electric current to carry messages. The signal current could be sent in an intermittent pattern of three short signals, now known as Morse code. At the receiving end the arrival of current could activate a magnet to which a pen could be attached. The pen made marks on a moving paper, in the dot-dash-dot pattern! Since all the necessary characters could be represented by different permutations and combinations of the dot-dash-dot pattern, messages could be sent without ambiguity.
However, telegraphic messages could be sent only from one telegraphic office to another, which then sent a written message to the addressee. Also, since messages were charged according to the number of words, ingenuity was needed to pack more messages in fewer words! Even so, Morse did bring about a revolution in communications!
[117] Dennis Gabor
(1900-1979)
He invented Three-Dimensional Photography
GABOR had enrolled himself in the Berlin University for electrical engineering. But the physics faculty had giants like Einstein, Plank and Nernst, and Gabor was soon attracted to physics. He was trying to devise a lamp using cadmium vapour, but ended up inventing the mercury vapour , lamp.
Gabor, the Hungarian born British physicist is known today for holography. He was toying with the idea of improving the resolving power of the electron microscope to make a hologram of the object and then examining this hologram with a beam of coherent light. Even though Gabor’s invention was almost complete, it did not came into the limelight mainly because excellent sources of coherent light were not available. However, as soon as laser beams were available, Gabor’s holograph received worldwide publicity. The technique of holography has many applications both in scientific laboratories and in daily life, including advertising. Gabor was a great inventor. He invented a type of color TV tube of considerably reduced depth. In fact, he has more than hundred patents to his name Gabor was awarded Nobel Prize in 1971.
[118] Satyendra Nath Bose
(1894-1974)
His statistics could have earned him a Nobel Prize
THE young Bose saw developments like quantum mechanics, relativity and new concepts of atomic structure that shook classical physics. Bose contributed handsomely by developing the Bose-Einstein statistics in colaboration with Einstein.
It is difficult to fathom this statistics. However, it is possible to get a feel for it. When we board an empty train at the starting station, we are choosy. Window seats facing the engine are occupied before other seats are taken and so on. These are Fermi-Dirac statistics obeyed by electrons. Favoured states are filled first! When we get into a crowded train at a station, we get in wherever possible. These are Mexwellian statistics obeyed by gas molecules. The photons and pimesons obeying Bose-Einstein statistics tend to cling together (condense) as we would when we are at a marriage party or are going on a picnic!
Atoms of liquid helium near absolute zero temperature or a collection of atoms that have been stopped in their tracks by laser beams obey Bose-Einstein statistics. That is why liquid helium exhibits funny behaviour! It is unfortunate that Bose was not awarded the Nobel Prize.
[119] Homi J Bhabha
(1909-1966)
He built Institutions Comparable to the very best
HOMI Bhabha the physicist had earned considerable reputation in Cambridge and in India. But his passion was to build research institutions comparable to the very best in the world. Bhabha is remembered more for the institutions he built and nursed. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research is his creation. He had the vision to observe, eighteen months before the atom bomb was exploded, that nuclear energy would be harnessed for power production, and that India would needed nuclear scientists. Very soon the Atomic Energy Commission grew out of TIFR, and it has done India proud in many ways. Bhabha established a hospital to treat cancer and developed a centre for research on cancer. He had the vision to lay the foundations of space research. He encouraged the small electronics unit to grow into ‘Electronics Corporation of India’. Even his gardens are institutions in their own right!
Bhabha the institution builder, had a deep understanding of science, an amazing vision, and support from Nehru. His management skills were superb; one could write text books on management by simply observing him! Indeed, Bhabha was a miracle nature!
[120] Arno Allan Penzias
(1933-)
He Discovered Evidence for The Big Bang Theory
PENZIAS the radio-engineer born in Germany but now settled in America was building a dish antenna for his radio telescope. No matter how hard he kept on receiving a low-level noise. Finally, he felt it could not be a noise and decided to look for a source of radiation.
This radiation came from all directions and seemed to be emitted by gases at extremely low temperature. According to the Big Bang theory, the universe was created in a big bang, atoms were formed, gases, mainly hydrogen and helium gave birth to galaxies and stars, in that order. However, the remaining gases filled the universe and kept on cooling. According to one estimate by Dick at Princeton, this gas would now be at about three degrees Kelvin, that is, 270 degrees C below zero. Penzias was observing radiation from this gas! It was not a noise!
This was an important discovery, lending support to the big bang theory. Equally importantly, Penzias had discovered a means to follow this radiation, giving a boost to radio astronomy. Penzias and his co-worker Wilson were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.
[121] Vikram A Sarabhai
(1919-1971)
He Catapulted India into the Space Age
TODAY India ranks among the top five countries in space technology. We can fabricate our own satellite, build a four stage rocket and gather valuable and reliable information using indigenously developed remote sensing technology. India has achieved all this in the span of three decades. Vikram Sarabhai was the architect of this progress.
Deeply interested in physics, Sarabhai pursued his interest in cosmic rays at Cambridge and later at the Physical research Laboratory at Ahmedabad. But the sudden demise of Bhabha saw Sarabhai at the helm of ‘Atomic Energy Commission.’ Sarabhai had the vision to see how much India would benefit from indigenous development of space technology and decided to promote space research. He established ‘Space Science and Technology Centre’ at Thumba and the ‘Experimental Satellite Communication Earth Station’ at Ahmedabad.
Under his leadership, India was able to progress rapidly in space technology. Sarabhai was soft-spoken and every inch a gentleman. He built a large number of scientific institutions. He believed in ‘Find them young, give them responsibility, and support them to the hilt,’ a policy which enabled him to launch India into the space age.
[122] Donald Hopkins
(1941-)
He was Instrumental in Eradicating Small Pox
CAN diseases, especially those caused by viruses, be eradicated from the earth? This question worried Donald Hopkins when he visited Egypt and was struck not so much by the pyramids but by the prevalence of trachoma, an eye infection which still the most common cause of blindness! He decided, then and there, that he wanted to work on eradicating infectious diseases.
Hopkins worked on the immunization programme of small pox, the most dreaded disease, and the hardest one to fight in tropical areas. He directed the global small pox eradication programme and pursued it to fruition. The last case of small pox on earth occurred 20 years ago! It is the first and only disease to be eradicated by medical science. Hopkins was recipient of several prestigious awards. Several prizes, including the Pulitzer prize were showered on his book ‘Princes and Peasants: Small Pox in History.’
Hopkins is now working on eradication of ‘Guinea worm,’ a major cause of anaemia in tropical countries. The summary of his contribution to world health is, ‘If we work with a single-mindedness of purpose, diseases can be eradicated.’
[123] Ugo Cerletti
(1877-1963)
His keen Observation Led to An Important Discovery!
DISORDERS in the brain are not easy to treat. It is difficult to tinker with the brain. Moreover, wrong diagnosis and treatment can lead to serious consequences. However, there are subtle ways to investigate!
Ugo Cerletti, an Italian neuro-psychiatrist discovered one such way. During his work in several institutions, he observed that patients suffering from mental disorders improve if they get convulsions (fits). To investigate further, Cerletti studied the neuro-pathological consequences of repeated epilepsy attacks in animals. Cerletti was aware that Wagner, who won the Nobel in 1927, was using mosquitoes to cause severe malaria in order to induce convulsions. When Cerletti saw pigs being anaesthetized with electric shocks before being butchered, the idea of using electrical shocks to induce convulsions in humans occurred to him!
Cerletti first used Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT) on a patient suffering from schizophrenia and confusion. A series of electro shocks were able to cure him. Later, thousands of cases of electro-shocks to animals and patients have been studied to determine usefulness and safety of this treatment. ECT is now widely used as a therapeutic procedure all over the world!
[124] Benjamin Franklin
He Excelled in various Branches of Science
IN how many fields can a man excel? Especially when the fields are not closely related? Even two hundred years ago, when great minds opted for general scholarship rather than specialization, men like Benjamin Franklin were rare!
Franklin, the American scientist, inventor, author and statesman, was a unique individual. He was the first to show experimentally that lightning in the sky was indeed electricity.
He flew a kite in a thunderstorm, tied a condenser and a metal key to the other end and obtained large sparks. The experiment proved his theory that lightning discharges between two bodies at different potentials. That dangerous experiment could have cost him his life! Franklin was the first to recognize that the ‘aurora borealis’ seen in the polar region was an electrical phenomenon. He also speculated on the existence of ionosphere nearly 200 years before it was firmly established!
Benjamin Franklin mapped the Gulf Stream. He set up a postal system. As a printer, he wrote and published the famous book “Poor Richard’s Almanac”.
As a statesman he served America with great disfunction!
[125] S Ranganath Rao
(1920-2013)
He discovered Docks built Four Thousand Years ago
WE do have some idea about how ancient our Indian civilization is! Excavate ions at Harappa and Mohenjodaro provide substantial evidence to sustain that claim. Well-known archaeologist S R Rao unearthed more evidence in his excavations at Lothal.
Lothal is a village situated in Gujarat, 15 kilometers away from the sea coast. Excavations there revealed a well-developed township with shops for various artisans and a decent drainage system, which are hallmarks of an advanced civilization. Besides all this, Rao discovered an ingenious system of docks. During high tide, sea water entered the docks as their valves opened only inside. During low tides, valves did not open out and retained water enabling the docks to be usable (ships could remain afloat) all the time! Archeological evidence showed these docks had to be dated at least 2,000 years BC!
Lothal is not on the seashore today. However data gathered from artificial satellite shows the sea is receding and that around 2,000 years BC Lothal was on seashore! Rao has many other discoveries to his credit, like the city of Dwarka, which is now submerged. Even more importantly, Rao has been developing marine archaeology!
[126] Andre Marie Ampere
(1775-1836)
He Demonstrated Several Laws of Electromagnetism
IT is impossible to go through even elementary physics without coming across the name of the French physicist and mathematician, Ampere. He studied phenomena related to electricity and magnetism and established the connection between them. Ampere enunciated a law giving the direction of the magnetic field associated with an electric current. In fact, Ampere held that electricity and magnetism were essentially the same phenomena, magnetism being electricity in motion! This was the basis of molecular theory of magnetism discovered later. Ampere also discovered that two parallel wires carrying electrical currents in the same direction attract each other, while those carrying currents in the opposite direction repel each other! He demonstrated that a helical coil of wire, which we now call a solenoid, behaves like a bar magnet when an electric current is passing through it.
Ampere was also a mathematician. He worked on probability and laid foundation of ‘Game Theory.’ He proved that with infinite resources you can’t lose a gambling contest! He had predicted that a solenoid would behave like a bar magnet before demonstrating it experimentally! In his honor, the unit of electric current is called an ‘Ampere’.
[127] Prashant Chandra Mahalanobis
(1893-1972)
The Second Five-Year Plan was his Brainchild
PRASHANT Chandra Mahalanobis wanted to be a physicist. In fact, he went to Cambridge to pursue a career in physics in Rutherford’s laboratory. But the First World War (1914-18) saw him grounded in India. He became a lecturer in physics in Presidency College, Calcutta.
However, Mahalanobis got so deeply interested in mathematical statistics and its applications that he decided to spend the rest of his life working on it. His main contribution was to perfect the technique of sampling. He estimated the acrage and crop yield by random sampling. He used his technique for collecting socio-economic data, consumer expenditure, public opinion, etc. Mahalanobis did pioneering work in the design of field work and tabulation of records. “Mahalanobis Distance” is widely used in taxonomical classification.
Mahalanobis is famous for his contribution to the second Five Year Plan, which was essentially his brainchild. Thereafter, five-year plans have come to stay. Equally importantly, he founded the Indian Statistical Institute which has now expanded with several branches all over India. Mahalanobis nursed this Institute with excellent research papers. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 1968.
[128] Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar
(1894-1955)
He Established Scientific Research to Boost Industries
SHANTI Swarup Bhatnagar was a physicist chemist with two illustrious careers. His researches in chemistry earned him the Fellowship of the Royal Society (F R S). Secondly, he set up a chain of excellent research laboratories in India that have given boost to Indian Industries.
Bhatnagar did pioneering work in magnetochemistry and in emulsions. He was responsible for designing a magnetic balance known as Bhatnagar-Mathru balance, to determine very small changes in diamagnetic susceptibilities. His magnetic method was used to study complex problems associated with colloids, solid solutions and photo chemical decomposition, to name a few. He conducted extensive research on the conversion of emulsions by electrolytes.
His research was useful to industries like Steel Brothers and Co. Adam Hilger and Co., etc. Bhatnagar was a man with vision. The council for Scientific and Industrial Research was established under his leadership to set up various research laboratories like the National Chemical Laboratory of the National Leather Institute, to help Indian Industries. This was his greatest contribution to scientific research for industrial development. Apart from several scientific honors, he was awarded Padma Vibhushan by Government of India.
[129] Obaid Siddiqi
(1932-2013)
He Discovered Genes Responsible For smell
HOW does a small organism find out where its food is located? Can it smell food and enemies? It is by no means easy, but relatively more rewarding to work on small organisms like the ‘Drosophila Melanogaster’ (fruit fly) to experiment and seek answers, since they multiply fast.
This is what Obaid Siddiqi and his team did. They studied olfaction, the sense of smell and taste, in fact, the behaviour of fruit fly towards chemical stimuli. It is not easy, since such studies involve genetics, electrophysiological, neuro-anatomy and molecular biology. Molecular analysis of genes provides information about structures and functions of their products and throws light on mechanisms underlying chemosensory behaviour. Siddiqi identified several olfactory and gustatory (taste) genes. Any change or mutation produced at this level changes sensory neuron in chemo-receptor organ or information processing at brain level.
Isolating of single gene mutation (change) alters the response of fruit fly. This discovery and other recent developments in neurogenetics have opened up exciting possibilities of understanding mechanisms of olfactory learning and memory. Siddiqi earned Fellowship of the Royal Society of London for his pioneering work.
[130] Indira Hinduja
(1944-)
She Produced The First Scientifically Documented Test Tube Baby In India
WE know mammals including human, grow babies in mother’s womb. However, for some human couples, external help is needed. Female ovum is fertilized with male sperm in a test tube, where suitable environmental conditions are created. Here it is observed under microscope for more than three days. The fertilized ovum is then put back into the mother’s womb. This is the genesis of ‘Test tube baby’!
To create and maintain “motherly atmosphere” in a test tube is not easy. It requires facilities of a well-maintained advance laboratory with considerable technical support of a very high standard. But Indira Hinduja achieved this feat when she was basically a clinician and a gynecologist and also teacher in Mumbai’s KEM Hospital. Equally important, she has been able to produce the first scientifically well-documented test tube baby in India.
Producing test tube babies is not easy. Even in advance countries, test tube babies are not produced as a matter of routine. So far, only 1,179 babies have been produced all over the world. Indira Hinduja has rejected opportunities to settle abroad so that she can serve India!
[131] Robert Gallo
(1937-)
He isolated The HIV Virus Causing AIDS
BY now everybody knows what is AIDS. The letters stand for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is also known that AIDS is caused by reckless sex with many, often unknown partners, or by contamination blood from AIDS victims. Is it possible that there is an undiscovered virus causing AIDS? If so, is it possible to identify and isolate it? Several scientists were at it. Robert Gallo who founded the institute for Virology at Baltimore and French scientist Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute of Paris discovered the HIV virus independently. The letters stand for Human Immune deficiency Virus. Experiments suggest HIV may have stemmed from a single virus nearly fifty years ago. This virus attacks the cells in the body which are supposed to build resistance against infection.
Formal tracking of AIDS cases began in 1982. Today we realize AIDS is more rampant than we imagine. More than 33 million people, of whom more than one million are children below the age of fifteen, are living with HIV. Gallo’s institute focuses on basic research to develop therapy and vaccine against this killer disease.
[132] Govind Swarup
(1929-)
He built one of the best Radio Telescopes in the world
A radio telescope uses radio waves instead of visible light. It collects radio waves in dish antennas connected to electronic systems and computers. A network of antennas yields higher resolution and accuracy to scan radio sources in space.
Unfortunately, a country that can afford all this is highly industrialized. Radio noise due to industries and electronic media interferes with radio telescopes. Less developed countries do not have this problem, but lack of infrastructure, and of course absence of scientists, prevents them from doing the job. In spite of all the industrial development it is possible to find relatively ‘quiet’ places. This is what Govind Swarup did. He found such a quiet place at Narayangaon near Pune and put up a network of many antennas each with a diameter of 45 meters, using a novel and economic concept.
Setting up this Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope (GMRT) was itself a great achievement. Besides GMRT helped discover several radio sources. Swarup has also obtained independeny evidence for the Big Bang theory. For all this work, Swarup received the prestigious ‘Fellowship of the Royal Society of London.’
[133] Harold Clayton Urey
(1893-1981)
He discovered Heavy Hydrogen and Heavy Water
HYDROGEN is the lightest element with an atomic weight of one! In fact, atomic weights of all other elements are measured in terms of hydrogen. However, extremely careful measurements revealed that the atomic weight of hydrogen was slightly greater than one. Could it be because of a heavier isotope of hydrogen? Scientists were searching for this heavier isotope.
The American scientist, in fact, a zoologist-turned chemist, Harold Urey, discovered heavy hydrogen. He took four liters of liquid hydrogen and evaporated that extremely cold liquid slowly and carefully until the residue was just one milliliter. Spectroscopic analysis of this residue revealed clearly the existence of heavy hydrogen with an atomic weight to two. It was named deuterium. Later, Urey and his co-workers obtained deuterium by electrolysis of water and also obtained heavy water. Eventually, Urey discovered heavier isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
Urey proposed with strong evidence that the moon and earth were created as one system, putting an end to the once-popular belief that the moon had emerged from the earth! Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize for 1934 for his discovery of heavy hydrogen.
[134] Vasant Gowarikar
(1933-)
This Space Scientist can predict The Monsoon Accurately
AS a space scientist Gowarikar has made India proud. Invited by Sarabhai when he was the only foreign scientist allowed to work on secret defence work in England, he came to India and developed the technology of using solid fuels for rockets. He started from scratch. The PSLV rocket now uses 135 tons of solid fuel in the first stage. All this was achieved in less than thirty years.
Indian agriculture depends heavily on the monsoon. Gowarikar developed a new technology, involving several parameters, of predicting monsoon. He can now predict not only its arrival and departure, but how it will behave in between. Whether torrential rains for only a few days will make up quota or whether it will be evenly spread out, ensuring bumper crops. The ‘Gowarikar Model,’ as it is known, has been predicting monsoon successfully for near a decade.
Gowarikar is tremendously versatile. Use technology for rural development, founding of the “National Children’s Science Congress,” and leading the National Council for Science and Technology Communication all came easily to him. He has also been successful science popularize. Gowarikar believes firmly that science is for the people.
[135] George Eastman
(1854-1932)
His Photography paved the Way for Modern Science
THESE days photography is simple enough even for a child. Load the camera, decide what you want to shoot and just click! The rest, like developing, printing and even enlarging is done in a studio. Eastman, the American inventor made it possible.
Photography was known before Eastman. But the process was too cumbersome for a common man to handle. Filmed that could be rolled and loaded in a simple box camera, mechanism to advance the film after every shot, and a simple viewfinder were all incorporated in a simple box. In fact, the famous advertisement of Kodak-Eastman Company read, “You press the button, we do the rest!” modern technology has made extremely fast camera of all sizes.
Photography has helped science progress. Camera can now photograph astronomical objects and events. Even more importantly, they provide records for comparison. Photographs of paths traced by atomic particles have led to discoveries in atomic physics. Minute cameras can be inserted in a human body, making accurate diagnosis possible. But all this could be achieved the simple but far-reaching invention of George Eastman!
[136] Ramalingaswamy
(1921-)
He discovered Simple Remedies for Killer Diseases
THE epidemic of cholera usually takes a huge toll. Frequent loose motions and vomiting lead to dehydration of the body, which is a major cause of death. Ramalingaswamy showed that a mixture of boiler water, a pinch of common salt and some sugar, administered slowly, spoon by spoon can prevent death. It is a simple, effective remedy that can be administered by anyone, anywhere!
Ramalingaswamy made several discoveries in the field of medicine. He identified the cause of Himalayan goiter and demonstrated it can be prevent by use of iodized salt. He was an expert on the effects of protein-energy malnutrition in growing children. He worked on the non-human primates and showed similar deficiency causes same results, including its effects on immunological reactivity. He also identified major factors of anemia in pregnancy and showed simple ways of preventing it.
Ramalingaswamy is engaged in promoting health for all by 2000. He has received many national and international honors. Apart from the Fellowship of the Royal Society of London, several societies and Academics of many countries have honored him with their fellowships.
[137] James Alfred Van Allen
(1914-2006)
He discovered Huge Belts of ions above the Atmosphere
VERY often, remote, nearly hidden objects are discovered but big, hold objects lying close by defy discovery. Science is no exception. Scientists studying cosmic rays from far-away interstellar space somehow failed to notice two huge belts of ions trapped by the earth’s magnetic field.
Van Allen was American cosmic ray physicist. He utilized unused German V2 rockets from the Second World War (1939-45) for studying cosmic rays. Later he used balloons to lift rockets to stratosphere where they were fired on. These attempts yielded information about cosmic rays, but the belts remained undiscovered.
Explorer-1, the American satellite carried Allen’s equipment for studying cosmic rays. This equipment revealed the presence of two huge belts right above the atmosphere. These belts of charged ions are trapped there by the earth’s magnetic field. The lower belt lies between one thousand to five thousand kms above the equator and contains protons and electrons. The outer belt lies 15,000 to 25,000 kms above the equator and contains mainly electrons from the solar wind. Justifiably these belts have been named ‘Van Allen Belts.’
[138] Thomas Alva Edison
(1847-1931)
Electric Lights were dimmed as a mark of respect when he died
EDISON lived an era of inventions! He reminds us of the gramophone. In reality, Edison invented an amazing number of gadgets. An automatic repeater for telegraphic messages, an improved telephone receiver, and a reliable power distribution system for consumers are some of his inventions!
His gramophone brought music to middle-class homes. He toiled hard to find a suitable conducting material for the filament in his incandescent light bulb till he hit upon tungsten! In fact, Edison used to say the formula for his success was one per cent inspiration and ninety-nine per cent perspiration! He produced the first cine camera, a new type of storage battery and several other gadgets. Edison was not just a hard working inventor; he probably knew the how and why of what he was doing. He had anticipated the thermionic valve!
Edison is remembered as an inventor par excellence. He has more than one thousand patents! Edison established the ‘Edison Light Company’ which quickly grew into ‘General Electric Company.’ As a mark of respect light bulbs in America were dimmed after his death
[139] Edwin Powell Hubble
(1889-1953)
He showed how vast the Universe is!
EDWIN Powell Hubble was a modern astrophysicist working with large telescopes fitted with modern equipment. With these Hubble made several important discoveries. He discovered Cepheid variable stars and showed they are in the Andromeda Galaxy, which flies well beyond our galaxy!
Hubble observed galaxies carefully and classified them according to their shapes. Elliptical galaxies ranging from near-spherical to pencil-shaped ones. Spiral galaxies of many types, with arms packed to arms opening-out, and barred spiral galaxies. Moreover, he was also able to show how far away they are from us. If an object is moving away from us, the spectrum of light coming from its shifts to the red side. By measuring this red shift Hubble was able to measure how fast the galaxies are moving away from us and from one another.
Hubble’s observations supports the big bang theory. Hubble also established that galaxies are moving apart at a rate which increases with distance. Moreover, the ratio of the speed with which galaxies are doing away to their distance is a constant. This constant is called the Hubble constant.
[140] Wilbur Wright
(1867-1912)
He flew the first Aeroplane heavier than air
WILBUR Wright and his younger brother Orville, the two American inventors, laid the foundations of the science of flying aeroplanes. This breakthrough was made possible because internal conversion engines using petrol were then a reality. The aeroplane of Wright brothers weighed only 341 kg, packed 12 hp, and Wilber flew it for 260 meters in just 59 seconds!
This was not an unexpected flash in the pan. Wright brothers, running a bicycle business, took a keen interest in mechanical gadgets. Inspired by Otto Lilienthal’s gliding, they decided to make a powered plane. They learnt how to control the wings to achieve control of direction and stability. Later, the Wright brothers made several improvements in their planes and demonstrated them in Europe.
It was not a question of flying a couple of powered aeroplanes. The Wright brothers also build a small ‘wind tunnel’ and tested the drag and lift on several models, thus laying the foundations of a new science. Of the two brothers, Orville lived long enough to see the full development of aeroplane industry. He saw planes with wing spans greater than his first flight!
[141] Alfred Binet
(1857-1911)
He showed that intelligence could be measured
THESE days we often hear of intelligence quotient (IQ). It is supposed to indicate how intelligent a person is. While IQ does not reveal all aspects of human personality, we remember Alfred Binet, the French psychiatrist who standardized tests for measuring IQ. It is not an easy task. IQ tests are graded. If a student can answer tests up to the age of (say) fifteen, but not beyond, his mental age is taken to be fifteen. Mental age divided by physical age yields IQ. Tests have to be standardized with respect to culture also. Metropolitan students may not be able to answer questions which rural students find easy, and vice versa. Standardization takes this into account. In addition, there are cultural differences between (say) American, European and Indian students. IQ tests, therefore, have to be culture-friendly!
Binet did more than standardizing IQ tests. He anticipated and laid the foundations of the famous Rorschach tests. Rorschach, the Swiss psychiatrist later developed a test based on inkblot patterns that subjects were asked to interpret, to understand personality type, degree of intelligence and emotional stability.
[142] J B S Haldane
(1892-1964)
This Genetics showed Enzymes obey Thermodynamics
HALDANE, the British genetics, distinguished himself in many disciplines of science. He used mathematics intelligently to formulate a new method of estimating spontaneous mutations. Haldane also contributed by proposing new theories for origin of life on earth.
He proposed that when the earth was relatively young and hot, her seas contained a large number of organic substances. Haldane coined a new phrase, ‘primordial soup’ for his rich mixture. Strong ultraviolet rays bombarding this soup provided opportunities for life to emerge. Haldane combined mathematics and human genetics to give birth to a new science. He demonstrated that living systems like enzymes obey laws of thermodynamics. He also showed that haemophilia and color blindness are genetically related.
Haldane had leftist tendencies. However, when Soviet scientist Lysenko used his position to propagate environment-controlled genetic changes. Haldane took a firm position against it. In fact, he used his scientific knowledge to tackle many social issues. Later in life he was so influenced by Indian philosophy that he accepted Indian citizenship and established a research institute at Bhubaneshwar to continue his research.
[143] Dudley R Herschbach
(1932-)
He ‘Saw’ chemical interactions at molecular level
UNTIL recently, it was customary to mix various chemicals under different conditions to study their effects on one another. The findings gave a fair but rough indication of interaction between molecules of the reacting substances. However, scientists had not ‘seen’ interactions at the molecular level. This seemingly impossible task was achieved by the American chemist Herschbach. He made two or more thin beams of molecules of various substances collide at one single point. They interacted to produce molecules of new materials. Since the energies of all the beams were carefully measured, it was possible to determine several aspects of energies of product molecules, such as their velocities, their angular distribution, rotational and vibrational energies, etc. It was then possible to deduce the nature of chemical interaction between reacting substances at molecular level.
Herschbach was an amazing all-rounder. When Stanford University offered him scholarships both in academics and in athletics, he decided to opt for academics and offered mathematics. But he took enough courses in chemistry to be able to pursue research in chemistry. His findings earned him the Nobel Prize in 1968.
[144] Stephen Hawking
(1942-)
He has been making great discoveries from his wheel-chair
GALILEO and Newton described the gravitational field, while Faraday and Maxwell described the electromagnetic field. The first half of this century saw the emergence of various interactions within the atom, besides relativity and quantum mechanics. Would it be possible to invoke one theory, just one description unifying all these ideas?
Einstein tried. Now the British physicist Stephen Hawking has tried with some degree of success in unifying relativity and quantum mechanics. He succeeded in overcoming singularities (terms where one had to divide by zero). He also discovered black holes do not absorb everything! If a pair of particle and anti-particle is created near the black hole, it may capture only half of it. The remaining could escape to infinity. At very large distances, an observer may see this as thermal radiation!
Suffering from a rare and progressive neuromotor disease, Hawking is confined to wheel-chair from where he has made great discoveries. His book, A Brief History of Time is an example of lucidity and depth. He occupies the Lucasian Chair for mathematics at Cambridge, a chair once occupied by Newton.
[145] Sir William Osler
(1849-1919)
His early diagnosis of Rheumatic Fever saved millions
HOW many types of cells are there in our blood? There are the red blood cells carrying haemoglobin and oxygen. Then there are white blood cells, our army that fights against invaders. But in addition, there are the platelets responsible for coagulation. The existence of platelets in blood was discovered by the British physician, Osler.
Rheumatic fever is serious disease associated with swelling of heart muscles. If not treated early, it could be deadly. Osler found a simple method of diagnosing this disease early. He noticed that in rheumatic fever, the patent develops a kind of painful stiffness on his finger tips. Even today, these are known as Osler’s nodes and are used as reliable diagnostic criteria for rheumatic fever.
Apart from research, Osler has contributed substantially to medical education. In his days, the relation between student and teacher tended to be quite formal. Osler treated his students in a friendly way, trying to pass on all his rich experience, which textbooks could hardly attempt! His book, ‘Principles and Practice of Medicine’ is considered a standard treatise even today.
[146] Richard Feynman
(1918-1988)
His simple diagrams helped solve complex problems
IT is commonly believed that protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus and electrons going around it are elementary particles. Everything else is made from these particles. Feynman showed that even protons and neutrons are made of quarks. Even more importantly, Feynman discovered a simple method of dealing with cumbersome problems in quantum electrodynamics!
This method, based on diagrams, is known as Feynman diagrams. These represent interactions between particles and how they move from one space-time point to another. Feynman also laid down rules for calculating the probability associated with each diagram. Equally importantly, he discovered methods to get over singularities (terms that had to be divided by zero) that were bothering scientists. In addition, he developed theories for explaining behaviour of liquid helium and for strong and weak interactions in the atomic world. As a member of the committee investigating the ‘Challenger space shuttle’ disaster, he showed that poor quality gaskets used in booster rockets were the culprits. His ‘Feynman Lectures on Physics’ and other books are famous. He was awarded Nobel Prize for physics in 1965.
[147] Florence Nightingale
(1820-1910)
She invented and established The Science of Nursing
FLORENCE Nightingale, an English lady, invented and established the science of nursing. In her days it was unthinkable for aristocracy to send their women out to pursue professions; certainly not nursing. But Florence, who was from an aristocratic family, went to the Crimean war to pull soldiers from the jaws of death.
The Crimean war (1853-56), fought by England and France against Russia, was notorious. More soldiers died from epidemics and want of proper medical treatment, especially nursing, then on the battlefield. The young Florence volunteered to join hospitals to nurse the wounded. Her nursing was so scientific and meticulous that the death rate in hospitals dropped from 42 to a mere two percent.
It was not just campassion. Florence laid the foundations of the science of nursing. Her charts for patients were useful to physicians and are used in hospitals even today. She distinguished between nursing in general wards for gynaecology, psychiatry, and nursing at home. She established separate wards for males, females and children! The British government went out of the way to confer OBC on her, she was the first woman to receive that award!
[148] Alfred Nobel
(1833-1896)
His prizes are the most coveted in the world
THE NOBEL Prize, the highest award one can aspire for, is given by the ‘Trust’ created by Alfred Nobel, the Swedish chemist and engineer, for excellence in various branches of science, literature, peace and now economics.
Nobel was a good inventor. He invented explosives like dynamite, gelignite and ballistite (a smokeless gun-powder). He developed several new explosives and set up factories for manufacturing them. He invented dynamite for making use of nitroglycerine safer. Gelignite, a colloidal solution of nitrocellulose (gun cotton) in nitroglycerine was safer to handle as it was less sensitive to shock. In addition, he developed oil wells in Azerbaijan near Caspian sea. Industrialization needed explosives for making tunnels, developing mines and building dams and roads. Nobel also worked in many branches of chemistry and solved problems of artificial silk, leather and rubber. All this bought him enormous wealth which he left with his ‘Trust.’
Nobel saw many ups and downs in life. Once his family went bankrupt. His factory blew up, killing his brother. But he is remembered for his benevolence. Nobel Prizes have been awarded regularly since 1901.
[149] Vasant Ramji Khanolkar
(1895-1978)
Pioneer of modern Medical Research in India
KHANOLKAR laid the foundation of modern medical research in India. A pathologist and bacteriologist by profession, khanolkar is well-known as director of research laboratories attached to the Tata Cancer Hospital and as founder director of Cancer Research Centre. He was particularly keen on promoting social aspects of medicine and took an active interest in improving medical education in India. However, Khanolkar is remembered for his research on cancer. He investigated habits of people in different parts of India and their relation to the incidence of cancer. For his work he conducted extensive surveys and was able to show that tobacco and paan were correlated with oral cancer. Appreciating importance of such work, Khanolkar encouraged research in Tata Cancer Hospital in Mumbai.
Khanolkar’s research interest was not limited to cancer. As a leading pathologist, he contributed handsomely to research on leprosy and reproduce physiology. Khanolkar’s work on racial distribution of blood groups, especially the Rh-factor, is world famous. He was associated with numerous national and international organizations on cancer and was given the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India.
[150] Rene Laennce
(1781-1826)
He invented The Stethoscope
UNTIL the French physician Laennec invented a good, reliable stethoscope, physicians had to make their diagnosis without one. Curiously, he was once invited by children to participate in a game. The scratching of a log at one end could be heard by a boy pinning his ear to the other end of the log, but was inaudible to anyone standing close by.
Inspired by this, Laennec designed a stethoscope with wooden tubes to listen to internal organs (auscultation) of patients. Laennec was interested in chest diseases. So he named it stethoscope from the Greek word stethos meaning chest. Using his stethoscope, he listened to chest sounds of thousands of patients and classified sounds according to diseases. He soon learnt to diagnose diseases according to sound, Laennec went to the extent of performing autopsy on lost cases to understand the real nature of diseases and to correlate it with sounds he had heard.
Laennec was a leading physician of his time. His book on auscultation is a medical classic. Some of the terms he coined for describing chest conditions remain in use even today.
[151] Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray
(1861-1944)
He was The Father of Indian Chemical Industry
ACHARYA Prafulla Chandra Ray is respected as the father of the Indian chemical Industry. He succeeded in isolating mercurous nitrite, which brought him fame and recognition. Later, Ray and his co-workers studied compounds of metallic elements with organic sulphur derivatives, particularly mercaptans and sulphides. In addition, they succeeded in preparing and characterizing various compounds of zinc, cadmium, mercuric iodide, etc.
Ray also laid the foundations of the chemical industry in India. He worked hard to set up, at a surprisingly low cost, ‘The Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceutical Works Ltd.’ Using locally available materials. Today we produce indigenously most of the chemicals and medicines we need, thanks to the brilliant beginnings made by Ray. Equally importantly, he inspired a generation of young chemists in India, thereby building up an Indian school of chemistry.
Ray strove for development of the state of Bengal. The monumental work, ‘History of Hindu Chemistry’ bears testimony to his knowledge of history and science and love of literature. Ray rightly earned the title ‘Acharya’ for his service and sacrifice for science, society and chemical industry in India.
[152] John Wesley Hyatt
(1837-1920)
He introduced us to The Age of Plastics
USUALLY uses of new materials are invented. However, science and technology have now progressed enough to permit ‘tailor-made’ inventions! You name the properties and scientists will produce the materials. American scientist Hyatt was one of the pioneers of this era.
In his days, billiard balls were made of ivory or metal. They were heavy and expensive. An award of ten thousand dollars was announced for the invention of light smooth balls that could withstand a good impact. Hyatt, a printer by profession, decided to bag it! Using cellulose, camphor, cotton and some spirits, he invented a new material called celluloid. It could be molded into any shape to suit the purpose. However, celluloid is inflammable. Later Bakeland, a chemist, invented a all-synthetic, fire- resistant material which was named ‘Bakelite’!
Unfortunately, Hyatt could not bag the prize as the time limit had expired. But his invention lived on! Hyatt produced not only billiards balls, but toys, combs, etc. The new material was improved upon later. Even today, pingpong balls are made of camphor.
[153] Sir Mokshagundam Vishweshwar Aiya
(1861-1962)
He was an Engineer par excellence
VISHWESHWAR Aiya was a gifted engineer. In the colonial rule, when there was hardly any infrastructure and no support from government, he conceived and lead to fruition several engineering projects that won admiration of his counterparts from advanced countries.
He built the huge Krishnarajsagar dam, twelve miles from Mysore. Little longer than a mile and a half, 111 ft wide and 140 ft tall, it has 711 doors that open or close automatically depending on water level. A long tunnel has been bored on the left side to construct a large canal more than 4,000 feet long. The majestic Vrindavan gardens are close to the dam. Vishweshwar Aiya designed automatic doors for khadakwasala dam near Pune. In addition, the project for controlling the Moosi river to ensure safety of Hyderabad city was his!
Vishweshwar Aiya designed many water projects in Maharashtra. He erected several plants in Mysore state for manufacturing cement, paper and soap. The steel plant at Bhadravati produces high grade cement. The Government of India honored him with a Bharat Ratna!
[154] Christian B Anfinsen
(1916-1995)
He discovered The Relation between Structure, Form & Function
WE can generate any number of words and unlimited literature even if the number of alphabets is limited. Likewise, a large number of proteins can be generated from only 20 amino acids. Protein is a chain of amino acids, but with a fixed sequence of them. This chain can turn, twist and fold. But every sequence has a specific three-dimensional structure.
The American chemist Anfinsen discovered the importance of this 3D structure, when he studying the protein ribonuclease. If the 3D structure is disturbed, the protein ceases to be useful even if the amino acid sequence is maintained. The chain can produce any number of 3D structures. Anfinsen discovered that only the structure leading to maximum potential energy and a minimum of other energies is stable! In fact, the chain is in search of such a structure.
Anfinsen discovered that only those two or more amino acids that can come together to form such a stable structure will together to form the protein. Anfinsen was awarded Nobel Prize in 1972 for discovering this beautiful relation between structure, form and function.
[155] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
(1743-1794)
His experiments enable us to write Chemical Equations
NEW substances are made in chemical reactions. But the question of whether mass is conserved in a chemical reaction remained unanswered. The French scientist Lavoisier provided a definite answer to this question.
Lavoisier heated mercury in a closed vessel in an oven for 14 days to ensure that all the mercury was converted into red-lead. The weight of the vessel was found to be the same as before. When the seal was broken, air rushed in to take the place of oxygen used in the reaction. The new weight of the vessel including pieces of glass was more, showing weight of oxygen used. Now Lavoisier took all the red-lead in a sealed vessel and concentrated solar rays using a convex lens to heat red-lead to separate oxygen and mercury. The weight of oxygen liberated was equal to that of air that had rushed in, proving that mass is conserved in chemical reactions.
Today we are able to describe chemical reactions by chemical equations thanks to the experiments of Lavoisier. The new method of preparing oxygen was an incidental gain!
[156] Alexander Graham Bell
(1847-1922)
His Telephone brought us into the Modern Age
MORSE had invented his famous code for sending telegraphic messages in 1835, twelve years before Bell was born. But no one had succeeded in transmitting human (or any other) voice across distances. Bell, born and educated in Britain and settled in America achieved this!
In the device invented by Bell, a thin membrane in the mouthpiece vibrates as one speaks into it. The vibrations of this membrane are converted into an electric current, which is transmitted to the desired place through a wire. At the other end actions are reversed. The electric current is converted into vibrations of a thin membrane fitted in the earphone, so that we can hear the voice! It is certainly not easy to carry out all these conversions and transmission without producing distortions. Bell is remembered as a great inventor, because he could achieve this feat! Bell invented many gadgets.
He improved upon the gramophone invented by Edison. He invented a two telephone system to detect bullets in the body, hydrofoil speed boat, a tri-cycle undercarriage for aeroplanes and many other gadgets used even today!
[157] Ramon Y Cajal, Santiago
(1852-1934)
He discovered Neuron and showed how the Brain works
CELL is the building block of living matter, just as atom is the unit structure of the physical world. This discovery led to a spurt of careful observations, under the microscope, of various tissues. The Spanish scientist, Ramon Y Cajal, spent his life time studying brain tissues.
He discovered, using microscopes and other primitive equipment of his day, that neuron is the basis of the nervous system. He found out how neurons carry impulses to the brain and back. One of his important inventions was developing of a gold stain for finding out the fine structure of the brain’s nervous tissue. He showed axons (projections) of neurons end in grey matter, but never join endings of other axons or cell bodies of other nerve cells. This showed that contrary to popular belief, the nervous system is not a network!
Ramon Y Cajal succeeded later in isolating a neuron near the surface of the brain. This showed him to show how nervous system responds to an impulse. For these important discoveries Ramon Y Cajal was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906.
[158] Julius Axelrod
(1912-2004)
He showed how signals are transmitted across nerves
THE nervous system receives a large number of signals from different organs of our body for the brain, where these signals are analyzed and orders are sent to specific organs via the nervous system. There was one difficulty in understanding this. Even when the neurons (basic units of nervous system) come close, they do not meet. There is a gap. Then how are signals are transmitted?
Messages travel in the form of electrochemical signals. But to they jump this gap? An American scientist Axelrod solved this puzzle. He found that an enzyme, noradrenaline works as a messenger and takes the signals across. In his ingenious experiments Axelrod was able to show these enzymes are activated only when required and are switched off after is done!
Axelrod was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1970 for his ingenious experiments jointly with Katz and Euler. He continued to take keen interest in the functions of the brain. He founded several enzymes and described the biosynthesis of melatonin in pineal glands, showing that they are not functionless but are neuro-chemical transducers!
[159] Max Delbruck
(1906-1981)
He was one of the founders of Molecular Biology
BY 1930 it was known that it is the genes that transmit genetic information from one generation to the next. However, the structure of genes was still unknown. Obviously, it was not known how they function. Delbruck, a physicist originally from Germany but settled in America, thought genes were molecules. To investigate, he conducted ingenious experiments, in collaboration with Luria and Hershey, on viruses that attack bacteria.
They found some bacteria can undergo spontaneous changes and resist these viruses. They also discovered these viruses can exchange their stock of genetic information with one another. They also discovered that what was exchanged were pieces of DNA! Delbruck and his colleagues used their knowledge of chemistry and physics to achieve a breakthrough in biology.
In fact, they gave birth to a new scientific discipline, combining physical and biological sciences, now called molecular biology. Today, this branch has grown enormously. For this fundamental work Delbruck was awarded Nobel Prize in 1969 jointly with Luria and Hershey. Interestingly, some of Delbruck’s students had received this honor earlier!
[160] Renato Dulbecco
(1914-2012)
He showed information can flow from RNA to DNA
CANCER is not considered an epidemic. However, when it was discovered that certain viruses cause a kind of cancer, efforts were made to get more information about them. Dulbecco, an Italian scientist settled in America showed that most of these viruses belong to a class that can attack bacteria.
Dulbecco discovered that the genetic information of these viruses is stored in their RNA and not in DNA! When such viruses enter a human cell, they attack and destroy the DNA of the host cell which stores genetic information. The cell then becomes cancerous, that is, it loses control on its reproduction and keeps multiplying without inhibition. He also developed a method of estimating the number of viruses in a cell.
The most important discovery of Dulbecco is that he showed information can go from RNA to DNA and not necessary the other way, disproving the central dogma of molecular biology! His discoveries were also useful in preparing a vaccine for polio and for investigating hepatitis. For all this fundamental and pioneering work Dulbecco was awarded Nobel Prize in 1975.
[161] Meghnad Saha
(1893-1956)
He understood Stars and the Bengal Famine equally well
STARS are made mostly of hydrogen. But even on their surface which are ‘cool’ compared to their interiors, energetic collisions ionize hydrogens, separating electrons from protons. Relation between degree of ionization and surface temperature is difficult to understand unless equations are laid down. This difficult task was achieved by Saha. His equations showed that at temperature of 10,000 degrees or above, the ionization is total. Protons and electrons can’t combine to form hydrogen atoms. This probability increases as the temperature decreases. Only at about 3,000 degrees the particle are slowed down sufficiently to permit formation of bound states. At this temperature considerable hydrogen is found on stellar surfaces.
Saha’s equations are useful and famous in astrophysics. But his contributions were not limited to pure research. He took keen interest in problems of Bengal. Saha noticed big rivers invariably brought floods, and water scarcity followed on the heels of flooding rivers! All this led to frequent famines in Bengal. Saha had prepared a comprehensive plan for water management!
[162] Jean Piaget
(1896-1992)
He established stages in the development of children
WHEN a toy is whisked from right under the nose of children, they think it has vanished and does not exist anymore! A promise like ‘O will give you a toy tomorrow’ does not carry weight. ‘Not now; is equated with ‘never.’ Later children go through a concrete operational stage, before they can handle abstract situations.
These stages were discerned by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. He showed that a spread-out collection of toffees has more number of them than the same collection heaped together. When water is poured from a wide jar into a tall, narrow one, they say, “It is now holding more water!” Children honestly think that a plastecene ball, presses in their presence into a disc will weigh more!
It is only later, after they understand conservation of mass and number, that children begin to understand abstract relationships and appreciate cause and effect relationship like ‘I can’t drink this tea because it is too hot.’ Piaget’s experiments and their theoretical interpretations gave new dimensions to educational research.
[163] Sir James Black
(1924-2010)
He showed that Medicines can be ‘Tailor-Made’
SCIENTISTS knew there are few types of receptors on our cells, including cells of our heart. Receptors labeled ‘beta receptors’ govern the level at which heart functions, and therefore the amount of oxygen it needs. If you can discover a medicine to block beta receptors, you can slow down activities of heart, reducing thereby its oxygen requirements.
British pharmacologist Black discovered beta receptors on heart cells and succeeded in designing the beta blocking drug, propranolol. It is currently used to treat heart conditions known as angina pectoris. It has succeeded in lowering high blood pressure and reducing mortality among heart patients. Black also designed the most effective drug, cimetidine for non-surgical intervention for gastric ulcers.
So far it was customary to keep trying drugs on the shelf, hoping that something would work. Best and two American scientists, Gertrude Elion and Hitchings, shared the Nobel Prize in 1988 for trying a novel approach. They went to the root cause of the trouble and succeeded in making ‘tailor-made designs’ for drugs that were sure to work.
[164] Sir John Cockroft
(1897-1967)
He initiated an era of high Energy Accelerators
SOON after the discovery that an atom has a nucleus, scientist felt the urge to study it. They believed bombarding atomic nuclei with a beam of protons would be useful. However, since nuclei and protons are both positively charged, a high energy beam would be needed to overcome Coulomb repulsions between the two.
Two British physicists Cockroft and Walton built the necessary accelerator. Protons emitted at one and of a long evacuated tube were pulled by a negative potential applied at the other end. When a charged particle is pulled through a potential difference of one volt, it acquires energy equal to one electron-volt, (eV). Cockroft-Walton accelerator was designed to produce a beam of 1.2 million eV. After overcoming initial difficulties, they succeeded in getting a beam of 1.2 meV protons.
Their discovery initiated a spurt in building high energy accelerators. Bombarding atoms with high-energy protons led to many new discoveries. Radioactive substances were artificially prepared in the laboratories. Low-energy beams were useful in industries and in treating cancer. Cockroft and Walton shared the Nobel Prize in 1951.
[165] Ernest O Lawrence
(1891-1958)
His Cyclotron paved the way for very High Energy Accelerators
THE discovery that bombarding atoms with high energy particles was a powerful tool in nuclear physics made scientists pine for beams of higher and higher energy. The Cockroft-Walton accelerator was useful, but it had limitations. To obtain higher energy beams one needed increasingly longer tubes.
This difficulty was overcome by the American physicist Lawrence. Instead of taking a straight tube, he took two hollow semicircular cylindrical parts joined together to form a circular box of low height. Initially the particles could have low speed, but when particles travelling in circular paths went from one part to the other, they were given a push. This kept on increasing their energies until they came out with very high energy. Later, cyclotrons of increasingly bigger sizes were built.
The invention of cyclotron proved to be very fruitful. Even a cyclotron of a relatively small size produced a beam capable of disintegrating nuclei and producing artificial transmutation of elements. Lawrence also built the same famous laboratory in California, now named ‘Lawrence Radiation Laboratory.’ He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1939.
[166] Feodor Lynen
(1911-1979)
He discovered How Excess Cholesterol Leads to Heart Attack
IT is dangerous to let the percentage of fat increase in blood because fat molecules tend to accumulate inside blood vessels. They can form a clot and obstruct blood flow. When the brain, heart or kidney do not get sufficient blood flow, the patient can suffer from paralysis.
Fat is of two types; cholesterol and other fatty acids. German biochemist Lynen discovered how cholesterol is formed from human cells and investigated carefully lipid metabolism in the body. He conducted a few ingenious experiments to show how certain enzymes and vitamins affect the metabolism of fat. These experiments showed fats are certainly necessary for our body, but consuming them in excessive quantities can be very harmful.
Lynen’s experiments enabled medical scientists to discover ways of arresting abnormal growth of fat in blood. Several medicines discovered in this process were a boon to heart patients. In fact, controlling fat levels was the first step to preventing heart attacks. Lynen was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1964 jointly with American scientist Bloch who did similar work.
[167] George Richard Minot
(1895-1950)
He showed that Bacteria are not the only cause of disease
IT was well established that bacteria are the prime cause of diseases like cholera, small pox, plague, etc. The importance of a square meal consisting of carbohydrates, fats and proteins was now beginning to be appreciated. For example, it was Minot who showed that deficiency of folic acid or vitamins could cause anaemia, which in those days could be a killer.
American scientist Minot demonstrated experimentally that food rich in liver cured anaemia. Liver extract administered orally or by an injection could also cure pernicious anaemia. When everyone was sure only bacteria could cause diseases, Minot showed deficiency of certain basic elements in diet could also cause diseases. He worked first on dogs and then on humans to show that giving patients half a pound of cooked beef liver daily resulted in unbelievable increase in red blood cells and in curing anaemia.
Minot’s findings, obtained soon after getting his medical degree, were the basis of future research on anaemia. He was awarded Nobel Prize in 1934 jointly with Murphy and Whipple.
[168] Susumu Tonegawa
(1939-)
He showed How our Bodies can produce so many Antibodies
OUR body produces specific proteins called antibodies to combat all foreign bodies, harmful disease-causing bacteria, and even harmless foreign bodies. Since the types of bacteria attacking us are truly enormous, how does our body produce so many specific antibodies? Moreover, the blueprint for any protein has to be contained within our genetic information. It is, therefore, difficult to understand how the process operates.
This riddle was solved by Tonegawa, a Japanese scientist settled in America. His experiments, conducted carefully over a long period, showed every protein-producing lymph cell has different blueprint for producing proteins. He also showed that right from the foetus stage, the DNA molecules from various lymph cells are exchanging pieces within themselves. This is how our body develops an enormous memory for creating so many antibodies.
As soon as a foreign body enters, the specific lymph cells in our body get activated to produce the necessary antibodies capable of attacking that foreign body. Tonegawa was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1987 for his pathbreaking discovery.
169] Dausset Jean Baptiste
(1906-)
He discovered how our body recognizes Foreign Cells
IT is generally known that blood grouping is essential before blood transfusion is undertaken. French physician Dausset, in charge of blood transfusion during Second World War, discovered that even after due care patients often reacted violently. He discovered further that many such patients had been inoculated for diphtheria or tetanus!
Careful and prolonged studies enabled Dausset to discover the complete body mechanism for distinguishing its own cells against foreign ones. He discovered that a set of genes, the Human Leucocyte Antigen genes, cause different recognition in different individuals. Patients who had undergone inoculation had specific antibodies in them which caused violent reaction even after blood matching. Dausset extended his studies to human major histocompatibility complex, a system of genes and their corresponding antigens which enable human body to recognize its own cells.
Dausset established the new science of immunogenetics and laid foundations of new concepts of tissue mapping. His work was immensely useful in organ transplants which are now performed successfully on a large scale. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1980.
[170] Francis William Aston
(1877-1945)
He built A Mass Spectrograph to separate Isotopes
THE discovery of isotopes posed a new problem before scientists. How does one separate them? Since isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, their chemical properties are identical. That is why carbon (12) and carbon (14) cannot be separated using chemical reactions.
This difficulty was solved by the British chemist Aston. If a cricket ball and a ping-pong ball will go far, whereas the heavier cricketer ball will fall at a shorter distance. Using this principle, Aston ionized isotopes of the same element and pushed them through an electric and then a magnetic field, separating injectories of isotopes of different weights. Obviously, if the percentage difference between weights of two isotopes is high, their separation would also be large. It would be difficult to separate uranium (235) from uranium (237)!
Aston’s equipment is called a mass spectrograph. He succeeded in separating most known isotopes, and with improved resolution discovered some more isotopes occurring in small proportions. Aston was awarded Nobel Prize in 1922.
[171] ISAAC MERIT SINGER
(1811-1875)
His sewing machine revolutionized our wardrobe!
We are so used to some of the inventions that we seldom appreciate how hard life was without them. Simple jobs were once difficult and time-consuming tasks! One such invention is the sewing machine invented by American inventor Isaac Merit Singer.
A needle with a hole at one end carrying a thread through it moved vertically up and down, inter-twining another thread, and it stitched the cloth as it moved forward. These motions were controlled either by hand or by foot pedal, which turned a wheel. These facilities were built into the first sewing built. He erected a factory to manufacture such machines and within no time sold more than one lakhs of them in America alone. Today manually or electrically operated sewing machines are seen in many Indian house-holds.
Sewing machines have transformed our life. Now clothes are designed and stitched rapidly. Shops selling readymade clothes are seen everywhere. These Days machines can be connected to computers and one can get clothes of the desired fashion stitched at the press of a button.
[172] LAZARO SPALLANZANI
(1729-1799)
He did major research on animal reproduction
SPALLANZANI, an Italian physiologist, disproved once for all the belief that microbes were generated spontaneously from heaps of rotten food. This was necessary since spontaneous creation was backed even by some scientists often with religious support. Spallanzani proved that if broth is boiled for a long time and sealed in a glass vessel, no life is generated as long as the seal is intact. Spallanzani studied regeneration in lower animals and showed they have greater regeneration ability. He successfully transplanted the head of one snail onto the body of another! He filtered semen using progressively finer filters and demonstrated that reproduction became less likely as finer filters were used!
Spallanzani had wide interests. He demonstrated that in respiration tissues use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. He discovered the basic factor responsible for digestion was the solvent property of gastric juices. His work on disproving spontaneous creation went a long way in eradicating superstition!
[173] R BUCKMINSTER FULLER
(1895-1983)
His geodesic dome was only one of his many inventions
BUCKMINSTER Fuller was an American architect, inventor, philosopher and teacher, all rolled into one! All his life, Fuller used technology for the benefit of man and for saving energy and other resources. He designed inexpensive and movable houses that could be built in a factory. He mapped the earth on a plain paper so skillfully that it could be wrapped around a globe without any distortions.
Knowing that triangular structures could stand the greatest stress, Fuller built houses using triangular structures into shapes of geodesic domes. This is his greatest achievement. He built an energy-efficient three wheeler car. Fuller discovered geometric principle for energy-saving device. He was creative enough to win over 2000 patents.
Fuller the philosopher proposed there is no limit to man’s ability to discover and invent. He always insisted man should be mobile enough to move from one place to another lock, stock, barrel and houses! Fuller claimed his job was to invent. It was for others to utilize his inventions!
[174] FELL DAME HONOR (BRIDGET)
(1900-1986)
She showed that excess of vitamin A is harmful
FELL, a British cell biologist, was one of the pioneers of the ‘Organ Culture Method’ in which tissues isolated from the body are cultured in laboratories. She studied how bones and cartilages joining them to muscles in chicken embryos developed when treated with hormones and vitamins.
One of her important findings is that excess of vitamin A is harmful to growth of bones and cartilage loses some of its intercellular material, and rarefaction of the bone results in spontaneous fractures. Fell also found out why this happens. Vitamin A liberates some enzymes responsible for this weakness. Fell also studied the effect of hydrocortizones, liberated by adrenal glands, on the growth of bones and cartilages.
Her research led to the discovery of interleukin that is proteins produced by white blood cells, which work against infection. More importantly, her work laid the foundations of bio-chemical studies of living systems. The British government went out of its way to honour her as ‘Dame Commander of the order of British Empire’.
[175] SHACK AUGUST KROGH
(1874-1949)
He showed that capillaries expand to meet demand for blood
THERE are innumerable blood vessels, big and very small in our body, handling five to six liters of blood every second. It is the blood that supplies nutrients and energy for muscles to contract and relax. Krogh, the Danish scientist did important research on this mechanism.
When we exercise, work hard or do manual labour, our muscles need much more blood than when we keep still. How is this extra demand met? Muscles have blood vessels including many capillaries to carry blood. When necessary, they expand to supply more blood. It was wrongly believed that blood pressure increases to push more blood through! Krogh discovered that muscles in need send signals for capillaries to expand. Krogh also discovered that if carbon-dioxide in blood increases, hemoglobin in blood releases more oxygen to meet the demand for oxygen.
Krogh was awarded the Noble prize in 1920 for his discoveries. They are of such importance that many kinds of respiratory apparatus and many other equipment based on his concepts are used even today.
[176] ROBERT BUNSEN
(1811-1899)
His Bunsen burner is useful in all laboratories
BUNSEN burner, invented by the German chemist Bunsen, is a standard fixture in laboratories. It consists of a vertical metal tube through which fuel gas is directed. Air is drawn through holes at the base with an adjustable flap and the mixture is ignited at the top to get a blue smokeless flame giving fairly high temperature. Bunsen was a leading chemist of his day. Working jointly with German physicist Kirchhoff, he discovered methods for spectroscopic analysis. Bunsen used his burner to heat metal salts to obtain their spectra. All elements had not been discovered in his days. Bunsen discovered two new elements, cesium and rubidium. Equally importantly, he invented many gadgets for studying chemistry. Apart from his famous burner, he invented the carbon-zinc electric cell, the photometer filter pump and galvanic battery.
Bunsen was truly courageous. He continued research even after an explosion in the laboratory cost him one eye. He almost died of arsenic poisoning! It is said Faraday had invented the ‘burner’ before him.
[177] M S SWAMINATHAN
(1925--)
The father of green revolution saved us from starvation
INDIA did not suffer from famine even though her population increased three-fold since independence. This is mainly because the green revolution developed varieties of rice and wheat with higher yield per acre and popularized them. Besides, he designed and implemented several national schemes for green revolution with modern technology. Swaminathan discovered genetic relations between various strains of wheat and rice and understood the biodiversity of these principal crops at the gene level. He has been responsible for suitable modification of plant architecture and growth pattern for raising yields per unit of land, water, energy and time. This was his significant contribution to the successful green revolution.
In recent years, Swaminathan worked on rice breeding to develop variety that can stand several natural calamities like hailstorms, and that would yield maximum crop per acre in shorter time and give higher nutrition value. He was Director General of the Rice Research Institute in Manila, Philippines. Swaminathan was given the prestigious “Albert Einstein Award’.
[178] AXEL HUGO THEORELL
(1903-1982)
He discovered how food is converted into energy
We know broadly that the food we eat is converted into sugar, circulated in blood to cells and cells convert it into energy, proteins, etc. But we hardly know how involved this process is and precisely how all this takes place. This process was discovered by the Swedish bio-chemist Theorell. Theorell succeeded in isolating myoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein, and in isolating from yeast the enzymes that help conversion of various forms of sugar into one another. He also discovered this enzyme consists of two parts a yellowish, not so well-known non-protein, riboflavin (vitamin B2) and, secondly, a protein. It is the first part that helps burning or oxidation of sugar. More importantly, Theorell succeeded in preparing these enzymes in the laboratory.
His discovery enabled scientists to understand how cells work. Theorell was awarded the Nobel Prize for 1955 for this important discovery. His was keenly interested in music. He was president of the Royal Academy of Music and the Stockholm Symphony Society!
[179] HANS ALFVEN
(1908-1995)
He discovered importance of Magnetic fields in cosmology
SOLIDS, liquids and gases are three well-known states of matter. There is, however, a fourth state called plasma in which matter exists only in ionic form, as in the interior of stars like the sun. Swedish astrophysicist Alfven studied this plasma state in great detail. There is an electric current in the plasma hence there is a magnetic field also. Alfven discovered that under certain conditions the plasma and magnetic field are bound together strongly. A detailed study of this phenomenon enabled Alfven to understand origins of magnetic storms. He was thus able to explain the spectacular phenomena of aurora borealis and aurora Australia seen in Polar Regions. Alfven also laid down the necessary equations to describe the behaviour of plasma in electromagnetic fields.
Alfven showed convincingly that magnetic field must be included in the then current equations to understand cosmology. His theories help understand sunspots and behaviour of galaxies. He has also contributed handsomely to projects for generating power using nuclear fusion. Alfven was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1970.
[179] DANIEL BOVET
(1907-1992)
He discovered antihistamines to combat allergies
MANY of us are allergic to certain substances, even to some medicines. Intake of allergic substances can result in swelling, rash and often fever, some- times leading to death. It could be disastrous if a patient is allergic to anaesthesia and other medicines given before during and surgery! Allergy is due to substances called histamines prepared in the body. Bovet, a pharmacologist born and educated in Switzerland, settled in Italy where he established a laboratory for chemotherapeutics and discovered antihistaminic drugs. Pyrilamine was the first drug developed by him. Trying to develop synthetic substitutes for curare (a poison used by South American Indians on arrow tips) Bovet discovered gallamine and other muscle relaxants. Later he developed many such medicines.
The discoveries of Bovet are very significant. Complications arising in surgery out of a patient’s allergy to certain medicines or to other substances could now be avoided. Also, the muscle relaxants developed by him were a great boon to patients undergoing surgery. Bovet was awarded the Novel Prize for his discoveries in 1957.
[180] ARDESIR CURSETJI
(1808-1877)
The first Indian to become a fellow of the royal society
ATTRACTED by the newly invented steam engine, Cursetji assembled a one horse power steam engine in his workshop. It could supply enough power for a water fountain. Later Cursetji took to building ships. Acquiring a ten hp steam engine, he built the ship ‘Indus’ in Bombay docks. Taking note of his abilities, the British appointed him engineer in Mazgaon docks and professor of chemistry at Elphinstone Institute.
Cursetji went to UK and built steam ships in British docks. On his return he was appointed chief engineer in the steam factory of Bombay. Ignoring jealousy of British engineers who resented taking orders from an Indian, Cursetji built an eighty-ton ship. Every part of this ship was fabricated in his foundry. Cursetji also pioneered photography, electroplating and made sewing machines!
Not many of us know about Cursetji. But in the days when Indian ‘expertise’ attracted derogatory remarks, the Royal society of London honoured him with a fellowship. Cursetji became the first Indian to receive that honour!
[181]JOHN FRANKLIN ENDERS
(1897-1985)
He discovered how immunity can be acquired against viruses
WE can augment our natural power of resistance by inoculations to acquire immunity against various diseases. But it was not understood how immunity developed. This important breakthrough was achieved by American virologist Enders. Curiously enough, Enders wanted to study English literature but ended up as a virologist.
Enders showed that immunity acquired when we suffer from a disease is different from that acquired due to immunisation. He found out how the body battles against pneumonia and how antibodies against diseases are specific. He studied mumps in detail and discovered methods of diagnosing it through blood tests. Enders established dedicated laboratories for studying contagious diseases, where he succeeded in isolating polio viruses.
Unlike bacteria, viruses cannot be grown in nutrient substances. Enders developed a medium of homogenized chick embryo and blood and, adding penicillin to suppress bacteria, succeeded in growing mumps virus. Later he grew polio virus. Later he grew polio viruses also. The general application of this technique enabled scientist many viruses. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1954 for this work.
[182] SHAMBHUNATH DEY
(1915-1985)
He discovered the precise mechanism of how cholera is caused
KOCH had shown that vibrio cholera is caused by screw-shaped microbes. However, systematic treatment had not been discovered since the precise mechanism of how these microbes cause cholera was not known. Dey performed some ingenious experiments on rabbits to discover it.
He tied small intestines of rabbits to make small sacs. Cholera germs introduced in these sacs. Cholera germs introduced in these sacs were seen to secrete a liquid. Dey obtained a sample of this liquid, made sure it did not contain cholera germs and injected it into healthy rabbits. Surprisingly, it caused cholera. Obviously, this secretion was poisonous and capable of causing cholera. This discovery enabled scientists to discover oral medicines against cholera. Using this technique to investigate child diarrhea, Dey discovered a scientific basis for treating such diseases.
Dey’s work was published in prestigious journals like Nature and could stand comparison with Koch’s work. However, the Nobel Committee finally took note and invited Dey honourably to the Nobel Symposium on cholera held in 1978 at Stockholm!
[183] NIELS FINSEN
(1860-1904)
He discovered that sunlight can cure skin T.B
NIELS Finsen, the Danish physician, was an unfortunate victim of ‘picks’ from birth. In this disease connective tissues accumulate on organs like heart and liver, resulting in accumulation of water, often up to six litres, which had to be drained out from his stomach.
Finsen proposed that lack of sunlight causes fatigue and invites such diseases. He worked on medicinal uses of sunlight and discovered many effects in just twenty years. Finsen successfully used sunlight to protect patients from small pox blisters showing that severity of pocks is reduced. He also discovered that sunlight could be used to cure a kind of T.B. (Lupus vulgaris).
Finsen was never depressed, even though he suffered from an incurable disease. In spite of lack of development of science in his days, he applied himself to make significant progress in medicine. Finsen’s Medical Light Institute, now called Finsen Institute, was founded in Copenhagen. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903. Finsen donated half of his share of the Nobel Prize to this Institute.
[184] C.T.R. WILSON
(1869-1959)
His cloud chamber was important for studying elementary particles
WITH the discovery of elementary particles, equipment for detecting them became necessary. Equipment capable of recording direction and energy of incident particles, and details of events following its collision with other particles, was needed. British scientist C.T.R. Wilson invented such equipment.
When a closed chamber containing air saturated with vapour is suddenly expanded, the air expands cools and becomes supersaturated. Vapour now condenses around dust particles. Even if air is dust-free, vapour condenses around ions. When bombarded this chamber with X-rays, the rays created ions along their path and vapour condensed around ions, revealing clearly paths of X-rays. Similarly the cloud chamber could be used to detect elementary particles. When cloud chamber was surrounded by electromagnetic field, trajectories of charged particles curved in different directions, revealing their charge.
Wilson’s cloud chamber led to the discovery of many elementary particles like positrons. The Tata Institute of Fundamental research at Mumbai used a large cloud chamber for studying cosmic rays. Wilson was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1927 jointly with Compton.
[185] SIR JAMES CHADWICK
(1891-1974)
He discovered the neutron and helped nuclear physics grow
DISCOVERY of the atomic structure proved to be a Pandora’s Box. One thought that the number of orbiting electrons in an atom was equal to number of protons in the nucleus. But atoms weighed at least twice as much as the combined weight of protons. The idea that half the numbers of protons were neutralized by electrons inside did not work, since electrons could not reside inside the nucleus! This impasse was solved when British scientist Chadwick discovered the neutron. He found that beryllium bombarded by alpha particles emitted unknown particles. When paraffin wax was bombarded by these particles, protons were emitted. Chadwick concluded these new particles were like protons but without any electrical charge, and called them neutrons.
His discovery solved many problems. Atomic nucleus contained protons and about an equal number of neutrons, making it weigh twice! Even more importantly, scientist now had a new weapon for bombarding atoms. Neutrons without electric charge could enter atoms without being repelled. Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1935.
[186] SATISHCHANDRA MAHESHWARI
(1933- -)
He made important discoveries in tissue culture
FERTILISATION is necessary for sexual reproduction of plants. Many agents like wind, water and birds bring male and female sex cells together for fertilization to occur. However, every cell has the full genetic stock. Only the necessary material is used in differentiation to form specific organs and the rest goes in dormant stage.
It means that given proper conditions, it should be possible to rear a full plant form any cell. This is the principle of ‘tissue culture’.
Many cells have two pairs of genes, one from the ‘father’ and the other from ‘mother’. Maheshwari discovered it is possible to do tissue culture from cells with a single pair.
He performed some care ful experiments and demonstrated how this can be achieved. In fact, when one doubles a single pair of genes, one gets two sets that look precisely alike. Maheshwari showed that it is, therefore, possible to use tissue culture to generate plants of desired (tailor-made) characteristics.
Moreover, such plants will have ‘pure’ stock of genetic information since there would be no mixing.
[187] BIRBAL SAHANI
(1891-1949)
He is the father of paleobotany in India
LIFE which appeared on earth three-and-a-half billion years ago is seen as fossils today. A study of plant fossils is called paleobotany. Sahani carried out excavations in several parts of India to investigate fossils of ancient land plants and established paleobotany in India. He was a specialist in ‘club moss’ for which he obtained the oldest specimens.
Sahani obtained fossils, 400 million years old, for ‘club moss’ of the type bargwanthia, which are invaluable. His studies led to new classifications of ancient plants. He obtained 110-million-year-old plant fossils in Rajmahal area in Bihar, inferred their internal structure and classified them in a new class ‘Pentoxylae’. From only fragments of fossils for ’Williamsonia Sewardania’ he reconstructed the model of the whole plant which has been kept in the Institute of Paleobotany (now bearing his name) at Lucknow.
Sahani, father of paleobotany in India, studied ferns and several other plants in Gondawana area. He was awarded the Fellowship of the Royal Society of London for his brilliant contributions to paleobotany.
[188] ALEXIS CARREL
(1873-1944)
He was the father of organ transplantation
WHEN blood vessels in the damaged in an accident or during a severe disease, cells in that part of the body can die due to inadequate blood supply. This is known as gangrene. Over indulgence in smoking can also lead to gangrene of legs, for which amputation is often the only solution. The French surgeon Alexis Carrel invented the technique of removing the affected part of a blood vessel and transplanting a good vessel in its place. He also discovered the technique of preserving blood vessel at low temperature, for use when required. Carrel also invented a machine for maintaining respiration of blood vessels removed from the body for transplantation later.
Carrel was particularly skilled in operating on heart valves.
Carrel’s research in the basis for transplantation of organs like heart or kidney; performed today, often successfully. Carrel was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1912 for research in transplantation of tissues and organs. He was a fellow of many medical society and was president of Carrel Foundation for Study of Human Problems.
(189)P V SUKHATME
(1911-1997)
He Applied Statistics to Agriculture and Nutrition
ORIGINALLY a student of statistics, Sukhatme worked on application of statistical methods to study problems relating to agricultural production, nutrition and health. He developed several statistical methods for preliminary sampling of crops to gather crucial information. As Statistical Adviser, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Sukhatme put agricultural research on a firm foundation.
He developed the theory of non-sampling errors. He created statistical designs for developing hybrid varieties. Later, working as Director, Statistical Division of Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, he had opportunities to study food problems of the world. Sukhatme became famous for destroying the myth created by rich countries that two-thirds of the world’s population is hungary and malnourished. He showed convincingly that while diet and disease are basic components of health, between the two eradication of disease is more important for rural development.
Sukhatme devoted the later part of his life to studying nutrition related to rural India. He studied these problems till the end of his life. He also contributed handsomely to promoting education of statistics in India.
(190) CONEILLE HAYMANS
(A892-A968)
He Understood the Complex Action of Breathing in all details
BREATHING comes so naturally to us that we seldom pause to wonder how it operates and which system controls it. Same is true about blood pressure. Actually, these actions are involved and complicated. Belgian pharmacologist and medical scientist Haymans investigated these systems in detail.
He conducted many ingenious experiments using anesthetized dogs. He discovered a set of pressor receptors in the carotid artery in the neck which monitor blood pressure and help regulate the heart rate and respiration. Near these pressor receptors Haymans found other receptors which monitor oxygen content of blood and help regulate breathing (that is, time to inhaling and exhaling and the gap between the two) and its effect on other body functions. Haymans discovered that both the heart and kidney are responsible for controlling blood pressure.
Haymans published more than 800 research papers on various topics in medical science. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1938. Apart from medical sciences, Haymans was keenly interested in painting and was a good artist. He was also interested in hunting.
(191) DONALD J CRAM
(1919-)
He could Synthesize Molecules capable of Mimicking Enzymes!
AMERICAN chemist Cram studying molecules known a s carbanion intermediates and was immediately stuck by their symmetry. These molecules exhibited symmetry about some axis, like the human body being symmetric about some axis, like the human body being symmetric about vertical axis. A further study of three-dimensional symmetry of these molecules revealed as interesting points.
Cram noticed considerable similarities between their three-dimensional structures of various enzymes necessary for several biochemical processes occurring in the human body. Cram explained how symmetrical structure helps enzymes in their functions and explained the role of occasional asymmetry. In other words, a detailed study of three-dimensional structures of these molecules enabled him to understand the working of important enzymes and proteins.
These studies opened a new branch of physical organic chemistry in which a study of these molecules threw light on several biochemical processes. Another even more important aspect of cram’s work was the emergence of a distinct possibility of artificially synthesizing molecules capable of mimicking some enzymes. Cram was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1987.
(192) OTTO HAHN
(1879-1968)
He was the First Scientist to observe Nuclear Fission
IT was an era of radioactivity. Scientists were busy bombarding atoms with various particles to produce artificial radioactivity. Attempts were also made to produce transuranic elements by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons. But the new elements were produced in such microscopic quantities that it was difficult to identify them.
Hahn was a skilled German chemist. Using his skills, he had succeeded in identifying several radioactive elements. Trying to see which transuranic elements were produced, Hahn was in for a surprise! He found barium! Obviously, uraniums were split into two parts. Moreover, the combined mass of all the fragments was less than that of the original uranium. Hahn realised the missing mass was appearing as energy!
This discovery of Hahn and his colleague Lise Meitner was the key to the atom bomb. The world thus entered the ‘atomic age,’ from which there was no going back! Otto Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1944.
