Saturday, January 3, 2015

Person - Part One

This blog is dedicated to those Famous and immortal person whose hard work, Imagination , creativeness make this work beautiful place for us to live.

Blog contain list of famous person and their achievement in respective field.




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(1)Galileo Galliee
(1564-1642)

INVENTOR OF THE TELESCOPE

Galileo was an experimental scientist par excellence! He proved that the time taken for one oscillation of a pendulum depends only on length of the pendulum. He was the first to observe that any object released from a height was subject to the same acceleration, and was keen to observe that an object travelling on an extremely smooth surface maintains its speed.
However, his fame spread across the globe for his invention of the telescope. He was the first to observe the four large moons of Jupiter and noticed that they went round the planet. He was the first man to see sunspots and the phases of venus. All these observations led him to conclude that planets went round the sun.
Galileo constructed, not one but two hundred telescopes and donated them to various educational institutes for astronomical observations. He wrote in his book in Italian so that his countrymen would understand him. Since his views contradicted those of the church, Galileo suffered the torture of an inquisition.
Galileo was a great exponent of scientific temper. He held, ‘In questions of science, the authority of thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.’ Galileos rightly called the father of modern science.
                             


(2)Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723)

INVENTOR OF THE MICROSCOPE

LEEUWENHOEK was more interested in his hobby of grinding transparent glass to obtain lenses of various shape than in running the cloth shop of his of his family. One day he was started to notice that two lenses held at a specific distance from one another enabled him to see extremely small objects clearly. This was the birth of microscope.
This was not a mere toy. LEUWENHOEK’s microscope opened the doors to a new world. He saw on a speck of dust or in a drop of water countless small organisms moving and darting around. Surely the dutch investigator had seen a new living world. What was once thought to be inanimate was seen to house of large number of small organisms.
Like a true scientist, LEEUWENHOEK wrote lengthy letters to the royal society of England describing all the details of these living micro organisms. He missed no detail. Indeed, the world came to know about the new world mainly through the detailed letters of LEEUWENHOEK. One can say that two of his rare qualities have laid the foundation of microbiology that ultimately paved the way to the prosperous biotechnology of today. One is his intense curiosity and second is his tenacity of writing detailed reports. 
                                         


(3)Sir William Harvey
                          (1578-1657)


DISCOVERED THE PROCESS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION

ALL of us have seen how blood comes out when we suffer a wound. But do we know how this blood is held inside our body, how it keeps flowing inside and how it is supplied to different organs of our body? Clear answers to these questions were not known four hundred years ago, until a British medical scientist, William Harvey, conducted a series of experiments and published in 1628 his conclusions were not restricted to simple statements like blood flows through vessels inside the body. He discovered the entire process of blood circulation, which takes place in two steps. Blood flows from the heart to the lungs where it is purified and comes back to the heart. It is then carried to different organs through a network of arteries. Harvey’s discovery is extremely important from two points of view. Apart from describing the entire process, it enabled medical science to understand the various disease and malfunctioning of blood vessels and discover ways to treat them.
Historians say that an Arab doctor, Ibne-Al-Naffis (1205-1288)
had also come to similar conclusions. However, he was not given the credit for discovering blood circulation since his findings did not reach Europe.

(4)Gregor Mendel
                             (1822-1854)


FATHER OF MODERN GENETICS
GREGOR Mendel was not known for his academic brilliance. He tried his hands at several occupations until he landed in Bruno Austria. Here, in rural obscurity he could use the excellent gardens and try his hand at horticulture. Indeed, Mendel played for seven years with plants of peas. He crossed tall, dwarf, several colours, and studied twenty eight thousand plants and recorded his observations.
How are characteristics transmitted from one generation to the next? Mendel noticed that there is a specific factor governing each quality. These factors, which we now call genes, can’t be mixed like we mix colours. They not only maintain their independence, but dominant ones always shoe their effect while the weak ones lay dormant in the company of dominant ones. This was the beginning of genetics.
All this was in 1866. Mendel’s study remained undiscovered for thirty four years. Even when it was discovered, no one took note of it for two more decades. Only when it was discovered that Mendel’s findings lend strong support to Darwin’s theory of evolution, Mendel and his observation on genetics came in limelight. It is now accepted that Mendel is the father of modern genetics.

(5)Sir Alexander Fleming
                           (1881-1955)


DISCOVERED THE CURATIVE DRUG OF PENICILLIN

IT was known around a hundred years ago that bacteria cause several diseases. However, no one knew how to destroy these bacteria and control diseases. The onset of an epidemic like plague or cholera was truly dreaded and controlling such diseases remained a challenge. It was the British scientist, Alexander Fleming, who met this challenge.
Fleming was experimenting on bacteria in his laboratory. While growing cultures of bacteria in dishes, he noticed that the growth of certain moulds arrested the growth of bacteria. In 1928 he isolated certain chemicals from this mould and demonstrated their use in killing bacteria. The mould Fleming used was a strain of the fungus penicillium and he named the chemicals secreted by this mould ‘penicillin’.
However, this penicillin thus obtained by fleming was not stable, and hence could not be used as medicine, This task was taken up by Howard Flory (Australia) and Ernst Chain(Germany). They eventually succeeded in stabilizing the structure of penicillin. Their work proved the importance of Fleming’s original discovery. Penicillin is one of the most useful drugs known to man. They together shared the Nobel Prize in 1945 “for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effect in various infectious diseases.”


                  (6)Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen
                           (1845-1923)

DISCOVERED X-RAYS

X-rays pictures are used quite commonly to locate bone fracture and also to see the extent of injury. Today, trained radiologists are able to detect patches in the chest, ulcers in intestines, stones in the kidney etc. these powerful rays where discovered by the German scientist Rontgen. Rontgen was studying passage of electricity in cathode ray tubes, when he observed that a piece of barium platinocyanide kept nearby glowed when the tube was in operation. He attributed this to some unknown radiation emitted by the cathode ray tube, which struck the barium platinocyanide screen and caused the fluorescence. Rontgen experimented and found that these rays were electric magnetic radiation, powerful enough to pass through light material like paper, wood and tissue. Curiously enough, x-rays are useful tools in areas other than medical diagnosis. For example, X-rays are used in studying the structure of crystals, and even to study the structure of molecules. The discovery of Rontgen saw the emergence of a new branch of physics called X-ray spectroscopy, which has enabled the study of giant biological molecules. Rontgen was awarded the Nobel prize in 1901.

(7)Ivan Pavlov
                             (1849-1936)

DISCOVERED THE CONDITIONED REFLEX
HUNGER and eating food are experiences so common that we hardly think about them. The secretion of saliva in the mouth is also taken for granted. However, the Russian scientist Ivan Petrovic Pavlov demonstrated that a large number of activities controlled by the brain are involved in this seemingly simple process. Pavlov’s experiment was simple. He demonstrated that if a bell is sounded whenever a dog is given food, his mouth secrets saliva at the sound of the bell. Even if there is no food, the dog salivates at the sound of the bell. This experiment shows that actions like digestion of blood depend not only on bio-chemical activities like secretion of digestive juices, but also on the brain! Pavlov called this behaviour ‘conditioned reflex’ and the process of learning it ‘conditioning’. Pavlov clinched the issue further by showing that a dog shows no response to food it has never seen before.
Pavlov showed that “conditioned reflex” is governed by the brain and is, therefore, seen only in higher animals with a developed brain. Pavlov’s theory has considerable influence on our understanding of the nervous system. Moreover, it has wide spread applications in psychology and education. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1904.


(8)Jerald Edelman
                               (1929-2014)


DISCOVERED THE STRUCTURE OF ANTIBODIES
NATURE has bestowed on us two defence mechanisms to protect ourselves from disease-causing bacteria. One is the lymph cells found in blood and in some glands, and the other is antibodies generated by lymph cells. While it was broadly known that antibodies are proteins of some kind, their precise structure was yet to be discovered.
We know that proteins are chains of amino acids. It was felt that all one needs to do is to determine the sequence of these amino acids. Prof Porter was one of the leading scientists to hold this view. However, the American scientist Edelman conducted some delicate experiments to show that these antibodies contain not one but two chains of amino acids. One of them is long and heavy, while the other is shorter and lighter. This opened a new way looking at antibiotics. Later, Porter was able to show that antibiotics contain two such pairs entangled in each other!
These researches threw considerable light on the structure of antibodies and enabled us to understand how they protect us from bacteria. Even more importantly, these findings paved the way for organ transplants! Edelman and Porter shared the Nobel prize in 1972 for their painstaking work.




(9)Sir Isaac Newton
  (1642-1727)


DISCOVERED GRAVITY AND THE LAWS OF MOTION

MENTION Newton and we reminded of gravitation. However, this great British scientist has contributed substantially to many branches of mathematics and physics, both theoretical and experimental. Apart from this famous three laws of motion, he proved that sunlight consists of seven colors. Much of classical physics today and almost all of engineering rests firmly on the discoveries of Newton. Newton postulated that any two objects attract each other. This seemingly simple postulate enabled him to explain why an object thrown up falls down and also to understand the motion of planets and satellites. The greatness of Newton is that he made his statements in the form of mathematical equations enabling him to make precise and verifiable predictions. Newton lived in an era when the mathematics needed for physical predictions had yet to be developed. Newton did all this work himself! He discovered calculus. He also discovered the binomial theorem. Newton is unique in the sense that he discovered both physics and all the tools necessary for his discoveries. He was remarkably modest despite his achievements. “If I have seen a little more than the others it is only because I could stand on the shoulders of my predecessors,” he said.


(10)Robert Koch
                           (1843-1910)


FATHER OF THE SCIENCE OF BACTERIOLOGY

WE know that bacteria cause epidemics. However, hundred years ago one knew little about these bacteria, and even less about how they were able to spread the deadly epidemics. Remember, the powerful microscopes and other techniques of today were not available then. Despite these limitations, Robert Koch, the German bacteriologist, using simple equipment discovered the bacteria that cause anthrax, cholera and tuberculosis.
He was the first to isolate and study bacteria that cause T.B. He was able to develop colonies of these bacteria outside the human body and was able to show that an animal infected by them developed the same disease. This is the famous Koch’s postulate. In simple language, it means that specific organisms have to be present in every case of that when introduced into a healthy subject the organisms produces the same disease. This postulate forms the basis diagnosis T.B. In fact, T.B. is also known as Koch’s disease.
Robert Koch used extremely simple equipment to establish the basis of bacteriology. No wonder he is known as the father of the science bacteriology. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1905.


(11)Bhise Shankar Abaji
                               (1867-1935)


INDIAN EDISON OF PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

PRINTING technology originated in China four centuries ago. But the early models were primitive, requiring each character to be cast and composed. Until 150 years ago, the printing process was so slow that only 150 characters could be composed per minute. Realising the helplessness of engineers in improving these machines, a leading English company invited engineers from all over the world to take up this challenge. Bhise accepted the challenge. He succeeded in inventing a machine capable of composing 1,200 characters in a minute. “Scientific American,” a prestigious American periodical, took note of Bhise’s achievement. Bhise improved it even further, inventing a later version of capable of composing 3,000 characters per minute. Later, he invented the automatic model. Bhise won 40 patents in printing technology. He established a company in the U.S.A. to manufacture printing machines and supplied them the world over.
Having made his imprint on printing technology, he turned on pharmaceuticals. One of his medicines as widely used by then U.S Army in the First World War. His inventions were so many, and in such diverse fields, that American technologies referred to him as the ‘Indian Edison.’



(12)Edward Jenner
                            (1749-1823)


HE SAVED HUMANITY FROM SMALL POX

THE smallpox epidemic was rampant all over the world, especially in Europe, in the eighteenth century. Edward Jenner, a British physician, was worried about his helplessness in curing small pox patients. But he was a great observer. He had noticed that the incidence of smallpox was very low in milkmen who had once suffered from cowpox. Jenner wondered about the possible connection.
He decided to study cowpox, which is relatively mild disease. He extracted some liquid from a blister on the udder of a cow suffering from cowpox and injected it into a boy. The boy did suffer from fever, but was promptly cured. Jenner then conducted a truly brave experiment. He extracted some liquid from a blister of a smallpox patient and injected it into this boy. The boy did not suffer! He had acquired immunity from smallpox! Jenner then used this method to protect his patients from smallpox.
These findings led to a method of preparing a vaccine against contagious diseases caused by bacteria, giving mankind immunity against these diseases. Today, smallpox is totally eradicated. The credit goes to Jenner. Two of his exceptional qualities, his keen observations and his willingness to take risk, have saved the world.



(13)Louis Pasteur
                             (1822-1895)


HE MADE THE 'WHITE REVOLUTION' POSSIBLE

THAT bacteria spread contagious diseases was known by now. But it was the French chemist Louis Pasteur who discovered that bacteria have other roles to play. They also spoil wines and milk! Pasteur did not stop at that. He invented methods to destroy most of these bacteria so that materials like milk and wines could be preserved for a longer time.
It is common experience that boiling milk kills several bacteria so that milk lasts longer. Pasteur discovered that if milk is heated at 72 degree C and chilled within seconds to 10 degree C, and if this process is repeated several times, most of the bacteria are killed without destroying the useful ingredients in milk. This process is known as ‘Pasteurisation’. In some countries milk is raised to 132 degree C for a few seconds to preserve it for a longer period. It is this procedure of preserving milk that has made the White Revolution or ‘Operation Flood’, as it known in India, possible, preventing the wastage of milk and ensuring its easy availability round the year. Pasteur studied fermentation as a chemical process. He is credited with having discovered the microbes responsible for diphtheria, cholera and those thriving on silk worms. He also discovered vaccines for rabies and anthrax. Pasteur was considerably interested in mathematics, besides being an accomplished painter.



(14)Joseph Lister
                            (1837-1912)


HE MADE SURGICAL OPERATION ASEPTIC AND SAFE

AFTER administering of anaesthesia gained acceptance nearly 150  years ago, an increasingly large number of patients began undergoing surgery. However, nearly 50 per cent of them died during the post-operative period. The operations were successful, but the internal and external wounds soon became septic, taking a heavy toll. Joseph Lister, a British surgeon, believed this to be due to lack of cleanliness in the operation theatre.
Lister noticed something strange. Carbolic acid was used freely to lower the stench from open gutters. Believing that the effect was due to carbolic acid which killed the bacteria responsible for the stench, he began spraying it in his operation theatre. By this time, news of Pasteur’s discovery in France that bacteria cause contagious diseases had reached England. Fortified in the belief, Lister now cleaned his hands, surgical instruments and even wounds with carbolic acid. He even advocated this method to his colleagues. They all opposed him in the beginning. But Lister’s method increased the survival rate from 50 to 90 per cent and soon gained acceptance. Among the several beneficiaries was her majesty Queen Victoria who made him a peer! 



(15)Sir Frederick Banting
                           (1891-1941)


AN ORTHOPAEDIC WHO DISCOVERED INSULIN

WE know that lack of insulin causes diabetes. Insulin is normally prepared in the pancreas and circulated in blood. If, however, for some reason, insulin is not prepared in sufficient quantities in the pancreas, the patient suffers from diabetes. Before the discovery of insulin, there was no treatment for diabetes, except regulating the sugar intake, and severe cases invariably went into coma and often ended in death. Insulin was discovered by Banting, a Canadian surgeon, and his co-workers. Pancreatic ducts of dogs were tied for a few weeks, and it was demonstrated that insulin was prepared in the ‘Islets of Langerhans,’ a group of cells located in the pancreas. He also succeeded in isolating insulin. Diabetic patients treated with insulin felt fresh as never before. Their wounds were healed quickly as in a normal person. Indeed, they got a new lease of life!
Banting completed all this work in just eight months in an astonishingly simple laboratory. In fact, some scientists could not accept that such important work could be done in such primitive laboratory. Banting also had a large heart. He openly acknowledged the contributions of Macleod and Best and insisted on sharing the 1923 Nobel Prize with them.



(16)Frederick Sanger
                               (1918-2013)


HE DETERMINED THE STRUCTURE OF INSULIN

EVEN after it was found that insulin controlled diabetes and that it was also a protein, its structure remained unknown until Sanger, the British biochemist, determined it. He showed that insulin is made of two chains of amino acids, held together by two bridges of sulphur atoms. He was also able to identity all the amino acids and determine their sequence in the chains.
It was not an easy discovery. He developed a technique of marking the amino acids at the end of chain, a process e=which laid the foundation of determining structures of proteins. Sanger was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1958 for his discovery. He improved upon this method and developed an even more powerful method to determine the sequence of amino acids in DNA molecules. Apart from important implications in the study of genetics, his methods laid the foundations of bio-technology which aims at building tailor made DNA molecules with a predetermined sequence of amino acids. Sanger was awarded the second Nobel Prize in 1980, which he shared with Gilbert and Berg doing similar work. Sanger is one of the four scientists to receive two Nobel Prizes!



(17)Willem Einthoven
                            (1860-1927)


DEVELOPED THE ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH (ECG) MACHINE

On a receiving a nervous impulse, the heart contracts and pumps out blood. Can one record these changes in the electrical impulses, study if the heart is functioning properly and get clues without having to reach the heart surgically? Einthoven, a Dutch physician and physiologists, succeeded in the designing the first device for this purpose.
It was a simple string galvanometer capable of measuring small changes in electrical potential as the heart contracted and relaxed. Electrodes were attached to the limbs of the patient. As the string deflected, it obstructed a beam of light and the photographic paper recorded the shadow. Since the heart contracts and relaxes repeatedly, one can record the wave pattern of these impulses.
The ECG machine of today looks very different but works on the same principle. We now use an electronic device and a cathode ray tube. What matters is that the wave pattern recorded by the ECG machine can give distinct clues about the functioning of the heart. It is also interesting to note that a machine working on similar principles, the EEC, is now used to study the functioning of the brain. Einthoven was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1924 for this discovery.



(18)John Dalton
                             (1766-1844)


HE PROPOSED THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

For centuries people had toyed with the idea that matter was composed of atoms. But no one had given it an experimentally verifiable form. This breakthrough was achieved by a British scientist, John Dalton. Dalton lived in an era when several chemical reactions had been studied, establishing that in a chemical reaction, the total weight of reactants is conserved. It was known that chemical substances combine with each other in simple proportions. Knowing this, Dalton proposed that all atoms of the same element are exactly alike, but differ from those of the other elements. Moreover, in a chemical reaction, it is the atoms of one element that combine with those of the other element.
Dalton’s theory had far-reaching consequences. It showed that chemical reactions occur at the atomic level. Also, since atoms of the same elements are exactly alike, the atomic weight of an element became its signature. This concept gave a support to measurements of atomic weights. We know that the atom is not indivisible. We also know that  the because of isotopes all atoms of the same element are not alike. Even then, Dalton’s work stands out like a milestone!




(19)J J Thomson
                             (1856-1940)


HE DISCOVERED THE ELECTRON

J J Thomson, a British scientist, was studying discharge of electricity through gases. He observed that when an electric current is passed through the tube, the negative electrode (cathode) emits radiation, affecting a photographic plate. These cathode rays are particles and not electromagnetic radiation, since they have mass. A magnetic field shows them to be negatively charged. Thomson called them corpuscles, and they later became known as electrons.
Thomson created electric and magnetic fields around the discharge tube and studied how the rays bend. Using these methods he determined the ratio of charge to mass, from which he argued that electrons were sub atomic particles. If electrons were negatively charged sub atomic particles, there must be an equivalent positive charge somewhere to make the atom electrically neutral.
Thomson proposed that the atom could be like a watermelon, with positive charge filling the volume of the melon and the negative charges (electrons) embedded in it like the seeds! Now we know this to be an erroneous concept of atomic structure. However, his discovery of the electron, leading to the atomic structure in terms of positive and negative charges, is a milestone in sciences. J.J. Thomson was awarded Nobel prize in 1906.




(20)Lord Ernest Rutherford
                           (1871-1937)


HE ESTABLISHED THAT ATOM RESEMBLES THE SOLAR SYSTEM

RUTHERFORD, originally from New Zealand, settled down in England, where he did most of his work. He discovered with remarkably simple equipment that the positive charge of the atom and almost its entire mass is concentrated in a tiny nucleus. Rutherford made a large number of discoveries in radioactivity. He proved that alpha particles emitted by radioactive atoms were helium nuclei. He bombarded a thin gold foil with energetic alpha particles. If the atom were like a watermelon, all the alpha particles would pass through the little bending. But he observed that a small fraction of alpha particles, in fact, recoiled. The interpretation was simple. If all the positive charge of the atoms were to be concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the centre of the atom, positively charged alpha particles making a head-on collision with gold nuclei would be repulsed heavily and thrown back. Thus the structure of an atom with a central nucleus was established.
Rutherford also proved that it is possible to achieve artificial transmutation of elements, converting one element into another. No wonder he is regarded as the grandfather of atomic science. Rutherford was awarded Nobel Prize in chemistry for 1908.



                       (21)NIELS BOHR 
                          (1885-1962)

            He discovered the structure of the atom

RUTHERFORD discovered that the nucleus of the atom holds all the positive charge and almost the entire mass of the atom. However, the statement that an atom resembles the solar system would have difficulties, because a charge undergoing circular motion would be accelerating, and hence losing energy. According to classical physics, such an electron would quickly spiral into the nucleus!
Niels Bohr, the Danish physicist, solved the riddle. He postulated that only certain orbits are stable. An electron can go around the nucleus only in these orbits. If an electron losses or gains energy, it jumps into the next appropriate orbit, and the difference in energy is radiated or absorbed in the form of light. The virtue of Bohr’s hypothesis is that apart from explaining the observed atomic spectra and the chemical properties of matter, it also explained; at once go, why atoms were stable.
        The Institute for Theoretical Physics at Copenhagen, where Bohr worked, attracter scientists from all over the world. It was  a home for leading scientists, who presented their new ideas to Bohr. Ideas endorsed by the sharp and discerning intellect of Niels Bohr became new theories in physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922

                        [22] Baruch Blumberg 
(1925- )

He discovered a vaccine against Hepatitis-B

JAUNDICE is caused by a virus that attacks the liver. It was earlier difficult to cure people suffering from jaundice, since antibiotics are not of much use against viruses. In general, jaundice is of two types. One is caused by contaminated water or food, while the other is caused by contaminated blood. The latter is caused by a deadly virus know as ‘Hepatitis-B’, which is dangerous because it can lead to cancer of the liver.
 Micro-organisms causing a disease carry certain molecules on their outside. Just as a uniform enables you to identify the profession of a person, these molecules enable the body to identify the energy and prepare antibodies to fight them. Blumberg, the American physician, has three achievements to his credit. He discovered the ‘uniform’ of Hepatitis-B, which enabled him to identify and isolate this virus. He ensured that specific antibodies can be prepared against it, and invented a technique to detect Hepatitis-B by tracing antibodies in the blood. Later, Blumberg succeeded in preparing a vaccine against Hepatitis-B. His discovery saved millions of people from this deadly disease. Blumberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1976, along with Gajdusek, who did similar work.



[23] Muscati Jayakar 
(1844-1911)

Identified 22 New species of Fish

  ATMARAM Saashiv Jayakar went to England for higher education in medicine after completing his M.B.B.S. in India. Later, he joined the Indian medical Service. In a colonial regime, he was banished to Oman to look after the health of Muscal’s residents. But Lt-Col Jayakar did not despair.
He nursed his hobby of studying animal life in the environment and succeeded in identifying a special type of goat that even now bears his name ‘Hegitragus Jayakari’. During his stay in Oman for three decades, Jayakar collected a variety of rare fish, which he donated to the British Museum of Natural History. Of the twenty-two new species of fish identified by Jayakar, seven bears his name. Two varieties of snakes and lizards are also named after him!
  Jayakar’s vision was by no means restricted to zoological specimens. In his very first year at Oman, he produced a monograph entitled ‘Medical Topography of Oman’. He also compiled the dictionary of idioms in the Omani language, which is regarded as the best work on this subject. We should be proud that an Indian medical doctor, banished to little-known Oman, conducted such excellent research! 



[24] Chaim Weizmann 
(1874-1952)

Laid the foundation of the Fermentation Industry

 ACETONE, an important raw material for explosives, was in short supply during the First World War (1914-18). Britain was worried, as acetone obtained by distillation of wood was just not enough. The problem was solved by Chaim Weizmann, a young scientist who had migrated from Russia. He had read about Pasteur’s discovery that bacteria ferment sugar to produce alcohol.

Could some other bacteria ferment starch to produce acetone? With hard work Weizmann succeeded in discovering such bacteria. Acetone could now be produced on a large scale. To his pleasant, he found that the fermentation produced another substance in great demand, ‘butyl alcohol’.  Naturally, this bacteria was named ‘Clostridium Acetobutylicum’. Weizmann not only solved this problem but laid the foundation of the fermentation industry. Weizmann politely declined all the coveted honors offered by the British government. Instead, he requested support for the creation of a separate state for Jews. This led to the historic Balfour declaration of Israel thirty years later. Weizmann became Israel’s first president. Later, he joined the Daniel Sieff Research Institute and became its director. Today, this institute is called the Weizmann Institute.




[25] Joshua Lederberg
    (1925-2008)

Laid the foundation of Genetic Engineering


 SINGLE-CELLED organisms reproduce by simple multiplication. The DNA molecules splits into two strings, producing sexually receive half the genetic information from the mother and the other half from the father, ensuring that no generation is an exact replica of the earlier generation. Geneticists believed that in single-celled organisms, the generations would be alike. ‘No’, said the American geneticist Joshua Lederberg. His ingenious experiments showed that some single-celled organisms are of two types. Cells of the two different types come together; the DNA from one enters the other, completing the entire stock of genetic information, before division begins. In other words, the two cells behave like father and mother! He also showed that certain viruses could carry part of a bacterial chromosome from one bacterium to another. This phenomenon is called ‘transduction’. Probably all this marked the beginning of sexual reproduction.

Lederberg’s work enabled scientists to genetics. Even more importantly, it laid the foundations of what was to emerge as genetic engineering. Lederberg was awarded the Noble Prize in 1958 jointly with Tatum and Beadle, who worked on different aspects of genetics.

                                                                     

[26] Werner Arber 
(1929- )

He discovered Enzymes that destroy viruses

 VIRUSES live on host cells. As they meet the host, they inject their own DNA into the host cell and capture its mechanism for reproduction. Then the organism has no alternative but to keep reproducing the attacking virus. However, some organisms are wonderfully equipped to defend themselves against these viruses. How do they manage to do it?
The Swiss microbiologist, Werner Arber, was trying hard to discover an answer to this important question. He found that as soon as a virus attacks, these organisms secrete some enzymes which can cot the DNA of the attacking virus to pieces! This was an important discovery. He also found that organisms secrete some other enzymes that can protect their own DNA from being split!
Arber’s discovery had far-reaching consequences. A new and safe enzyme that can attack only the enemy virus and cut it to pieces was now available. Later, this finding could be used to bring about desired changes in any DNA. In fact, Arber laid the foundations of bio-technology. He shared the Nobel Prize for 1978 with Nathans and Smith of America, who also discovered enzymes which could split the DNA at specified sites.



[27] Antoine Henri Becquerel
  (1852-1908)

 He discovered Spontaneous Radioactivity

  The belief that atoms were not divisible was held for centuries. Curiously enough, the study of an enormously large number of chemical reactions did not shake this belief. But the 10 years from 1895 to 1905 shook the very foundations of physics. After Thomson discovered the electron and the French scientist Becquerel discovered radioactivity, it was obvious that the atom was divisible!
Becquerel, working on some uranium salts, discovered that the photographic plates, kept in a closed envelope in the drawer of the table had become loggy. Moreover, the film carried the image of a key kept on the envelope. To be sure, Becquerel repeated the experiment taking due care. He got the same results! Obviously, the uranium salt on the table was emitting some radiation capable of going through wood and cardboard, but not through the metallic key. This was the discovery of radioactivity.
The discovery of radioactivity had tremendous consequences. First of all, it was proved that these rays were emitted by the atom. Secondly, it was now possible to study atomic structure by bombarding atoms with some of these energetic rays. Becquerel was awarded the Noble Prize in 1903, jointly with Marie and Pierre Curie.                


[28] Marie Curie 
(1867-1934)
She isolated Radioa
ctive Radium and Polonium
BECQUEREL had discovered radioactivity. It was not yet known; however, which part of the atom was emitting these mysterious rays. Nearly 100 years ago, it was difficult to isolate the radioactive part using the chemical methods available. The task was complicated further by the fact that isotopes were yet to be discovered.
It was the French couple, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who, despite all problems, meticulously went through a tedious and time-consuming chemical analysis and succeeded in isolating radium and polonium (named after Poland their motherland). Within two years of Becquerel’s discovery, they had isolated these two elements. In fact, in 1902 Marie Curie obtained one tenth of a gram of radiation was three million times more than that of the uranium salt handled by Becquerel!
The Curie couple made available several radioactive substances for research. Even more importantly, they established that radioactivity could convert one element into another, compelling scientists to revise the concept of ‘element’. Marie and Pierre curie were awarded the noble for 1903 along with Becquerel. Marie curie also received the noble price for chemistry in 1911 and became first scientist to receive two noble prizes! 


[29] Enrico Fermi
 (1901-1954)

He built the first atomic reaction

ENRICO Fermi lived in an era when physics was undergoing rapid changes. Natural radioactivity could convert one element into another. Artificial transmutation of elements could also be achieved by bombarding the atom with alpha rays or protons. Meanwhile Chadwick had discovered in 1932 a new particle, the neutron. Enrico Fermi, the Italian Physicist, tried to obtain trans-uranic elements by bombarding heavy elements with neutrons.
Fermi was a rare physicist who excelled both in theory and in experiments. He showed that slow neutrons were more effective in transmutation of elements and also produced a theory to explain his results. He explained theoretically how a neutron within the nucleus is converted into a proton with the emission of an electron, a process known as beta decay. He developed with the British physicist Dirac the statistics applicable to particles like electrons. These are known as the Fermi Dirac statistics.
 Fermi had to migrate to America to escape persecution of the Jews. He settled in Chicago, where he built the first atomic reactor. Fermi played a key role in developing the atom bomb. The huge laboratory at Chicago is now known as the Fermi Lab. Fermi was awarded the Noble Prize for 1938.   




[30] Konrad Lorenz 
(1903-1989)

He discovered how social behavior is inherited

GENETICS decides how the external and some of the internal Characters of an organism are inherited. But what is it that controls an organism’s social behavior, such as the decision to stay alone or in group? How does it choose its leader? Or how does it decide whether to let itself be domesticated? Is there an element in genetics that governs these aspects of behavior?
Lorenz, an Austrian scientist experimenting with animals in their natural habitat, discovered patterns of social behaviour governed by genetics. As offspring grow they react to visual and auditory signals received from their behaviour, a process called imprinting. Once imprinting is complete, the animals give the same response to stimuli, regardless of where the stimuli come from. The conclusions of Lorenz have been shown to be essentially right, even though animals confined in a laboratory may exhibit somewhat different behaviour.
Lorenz laid the foundation of the study of animal behaviour, and opened a new branch of science. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1973 along with Tinbergen and Von Frisch, who did similar, who did similar work on animal behaviour.  


     

 [31] Karl Landsteiner
                            (1868-1943)

                     He discovered Blood groups

BLOOD of all kinds looks the same to the naked eye, but it isn’t. There are four blood groups, and a patient could react violently if, by mistake, he is given blood of a wrong group. It could even result in death. Remember, the body reacts against anything foreign! Molecules of two types, working as antigens, could be present in the blood cells, leading to four different blood groups, blood cells carrying molecules of one kind (A), cells carrying molecules of the other kind (B), those carrying both (AB), and those not carrying any (O). Obviously, type A cannot tolerate B and vice versa. Type AB can take any blood, while anyone can take type O. This important discovery was made by the American scientist Landsteiner.
Often during surgery or when a patient has suffered excessive bleeding, it is necessary to give blood transfusion. Landsteiner’s discovery explained why it is necessary to match the blood group before transfusion. H was awarded the Noble Prize in 1930 for this important discovery.
Landsteiner did not rest on his laurels. He continued his research on blood groups, and after nine years of hard work discovered two subtle differences, Rh+79 and Rh-79.



                         [32]Dickinson W.RichardsJR.                                                 (1895-1973)

He used a catheter to look into the Heart

EVERYONE is scared of a heart attack, which often results in death. The heart, like any other muscle, requires a continuous blood supply. If, for any reason, the supply to the heart is blocked and is not adequate, the patient suffers from a heart attack. But the million-dollar question is, can one diagnose this condition well in advanced and prevent a heart attack?
An American physiologist, Dickinson Richards Jr., developed a technique of looking right into the heart without opening the chest. A thin flexible catheter is inserted into the thigh vein  and is slowly pushed up to the heart, enabling the physician to look into various blood vessels serving the heart, see if some of them are blocked, assess the extent of blockage and also examine  if the valves are functioning properly. This technique, called cardiac catheterization, helps physicians arrive at the diagnosis and take remedial measures.
Physicians are no longer helpless spectators to a heart attack, which earlier almost inevitably resulted in death. Many patients get timely help and are able to lead a long life. Dickinson Richards Jr. shared the Noble Prize for 1956 with Forssmann, who did similar work.   




[33] SIR BERNARD KATZ
    (1911- 2003)

       He discovered Neuro Transmitters

OUR skin reacts even to a delicate touch. Some sensitive people can feel a piece of thread in an otherwise soft mattress! We can’t touch a glowing ‘agarbatti’even momentarily. How do we ‘understand’ these stimuli? Three factors are involved in the process: the skin and other organs that take the message to the nerve fibre, nerve cells that receive the stimuli and the nervous system that orders the body to take appropriate action. Obviously, all this must take place with lightning speed! It was, therefore, believed that this process takes place through electrical impulses which can travel very fast. Bernard Katz, a British physiologist of German origin, investigated the functioning of nerves and muscles, especially at the site of transmission of a nerve impulse from a nerve fibre to a muscle fibre. It was Katz who showed that the system cannot depend on electrical impulses alone chemical impulses are also needed. He conceived the idea of chemical neurotransmitters and discovered several types of these transmitters.
Understanding the working of neurotransmitters was very important in medicine as it enabled scientists to invent a variety of painkillers, Katz shared the Noble Prize for 1970 with Axelrod of America who did similar work.




[34] D. D. Kosambi
 (1907-1966)

He contributed handsomely to many fields

 MANY great minds are experts in a subject of their choice. Rare are the Kosambi who gain mastery over a variety of fields. As a statistician, D. D. Kosambi successfully forecast the yield of crops in China and developed methods for quality control of industrial goods. His statistical methods for determining the sites and sizes of dams were adopted by the national five-year plan committee as the basis for optimizing the building of dams!
Kosambi was also a historian of repute. He postulated that freshly minted coins of approximately the same weight lose weight as they are handled. He collected and weighed coins from several periods and was able to show that the width of the curve of numbers against weight for coins of the Gupta period, where coins were handled most, was indeed our golden age. He also held that caves were located on the crossing of trade routes. With help from the Indian Air Force, he discovered near Pune caves hidden in dense jungles which ancient trade routes had crossed.
His treatise, ‘Introduction to the study of Indian History’, is a unique piece of work. As an Indologist, he knew many European and ancient Indian languages. His work in this field is also well known.



[35] Michael Faraday
 (17991-1867)

He unveiled the secretes of Magnetism

MICHAEL Faraday had a deep insight into science. Though he joined Sir Humphrey Davy as a humble assistant, with little formal training in science, he was able to make significant breakthroughs. His rare vision enabled him to make discoveries in magnetism, for instance, the relation between magnetism and electricity, and effect of electricity on an electrolyte. His discoveries had far-reaching consequences
Faraday discovered that a magnet moving in a coil of wire could generate electricity. Moving it vigorously produced more electricity. He was able to construct a dynamo, an electrical motor, and also a transformer. He was able to show that the passage of electricity through an ionic solution leads to the deposition of ions on electrodes. This was the beginning of electroplating. Faraday was able to achieve most of this before he had crossed his forties. The greatness of Faraday was that he worried about ‘how’ and ‘why’. It was his inquiring mind that led to the famous postulates of lines and tubes of force associated with a magnet.
His concern for spreading science in society was laudable. His popular lectures were at once lucid and entertaining. The father of electromagnetism made science popular in England.



   [36] James Clerk Maxwell  
                             (1831-1879)

His Equations have stood the test of time

BRITISH physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his short span of life (48 years), contributed substantially to many branches of physics. An excellent mathematical physicist, he studied heat and laid down statistical equations describing the behaviour of molecules in a gas. Like Newton, he expressed his ideas in mathematical equations, so that accurate and predictable answers could be arrived at.
 Apart from his statistics for gas molecules (Maxwellian distribution of velocities), he’s famous for his equations in the electromagnetic field. These equations encompass all laws discovered by Faraday, besides the behaviour of light and electromagnetic radiation of any kind. Light, as well as X-rays and radiowaves discovered much later could all be described by his equations.
Theories that stand the test of time are usually fundamental. Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism are truly fundamental. For example, as science progressed and relativity appeared on the scene, and as deeper insights were obtained in astrophysics, it was realised everything couldn’t be explained only on the basis of gravitation. The role of electromagnetic forces was significant in cosmology. Maxwell’s equations played an important role in introducing the electromagnetic component in cosmology.  





[37] R Chidambaram 
(1936- )

Architect of Indian’s Nuclear Programme

R Chidambaram has played a key role in building the physics group at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in Mumbai. This group is rated one of the best in the world, both in developing advanced theory and in generating the latest experimental techniques. He himself has worked on properties of matter under high pressure and on scattering of neutrons by crystals. Today, he is one of the most renowned neutron spectroscopists and crystallographers in the world.
Chidambaram became known to the world, and to Indians in particular, because of his leadership role in the Pokhran explosions. Even in 1974, before he had crossed forty, he had played a significant role, taking the responsibility of making intricate calculations on the computer for India’s first explosion.
Atom bombs, a hydrogen bomb, two low yield devices and the explosions conducted in 1998 required truly remarkable abilities. One cannot import even an iota of technology in these fields. All the know-how needed for atomic explosions, for developing missiles, for remote sensing, for cryogenic engines and for a super-computer has to be developed indigenously and under utmost secrecy. That is why the work involved in explosions conducted by Chidambaram and his group at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre is extremely commendable. 



[38] Max Planck 
(1858-1947)

His Quantum theory provided the basis for knowing the photoelectric effect

As a metal rod is heated it progressively becomes warm, hot and red hot. As its temperature rises, it begins to emit light, red in the beginning, then yellow, and then blue. All this is common knowledge. However, there is a conceptual difficulty. If the temperature is doubled, emission of radiation for each colour is not doubled. The spectrum simply shifts to the left. Which means, the most prominent colour now emitted by the object is of a higher frequency or lower wavelength. The reverse happens when the temperature is halved. This was just not understandable. Besides radiation emitted by hot bodies, the German Physicist Max Planck had no clues. But he had vision. This is how he solved the problem. Imagine molecules in the object to be some kind of oscillators.
According to classical physics, all frequencies were available to these oscillators. Planck postulated that only some frequencies were available, and that the radiation emitted was in the nature of packets or quanta.
Planck’s discovery is very important. It enabled scientists to understand the outcome of an interaction between radiation and elementary particles. Planck’s quantum theory provides the basis for understanding the photoelectric effect and the Raman effect. Planck was awarded the Noble Prize for 1918.

[39] Albert Einstein 
(1879-1955)

The most fertile brain of modern world

The discovery of X-rays; electron and radioactivity were followed by many new findings that shook physics. It was emitted when a thin sheet of medal was bombarded with ultraviolet rays. It was also find that shining the metal with a large beam of ultraviolet rays increase the yield of electrons but not their velocities. On the other hand, using rays of higher frequency (higher energy) resulted in electrons being emitted with higher speeds.
This was one of the many puzzles solved by great Albert Einstein. As postulated by Planck, radiation travels in packets of quanta. A packet with enough energy to liberate an electron from the atom and impart the remainder to give it speed would be able to knock the electron out. Einstein called it the photo-electric effect.
Obviously, only a packet (phaton) with a higher energy would be able to eject an electron and give it a higher speed. Einstein was awarded the in Noble Prize 1921 for this work.
Einstein made many important discoveries like understanding Brownian motion, Bose-Einstein statistics and his famous relation E=mc2. However, he is known the world over for relativity. A separate episode will be devoted to relativity later.  




 [40] Arthur H Compton
                            (1892-1962)

Found that Photon can give part of its energy to an electron

Max Planck had postulated that electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of packets and not as waves. These packets are called photons or particles of light. The American physicist Arthur Compton discovered that when a photon collides with a free electron (not tightly bound to the atom), the photon can part with some of its energy to the electron and emerge as a photon of reduced energy (longer wavelength or higher frequency).
Compton bombarded a piece of carbon with nearly monochromatic (of the same wavelength) X-rays, having taken care of measure the wavelength of X-rays emitted by the X-ray tube. Now the X-rays scattered in different directions were seen to have longer wavelengths, indicating that the photons had imparted some of their energy to the electrons in the block of carbon. Compton’s discovery gave additional support to the quantum theory. Even more importantly, by measuring the wavelengths of x-rays scattered in different directions, it was possible to peep into the structure of matter. Indeed, Compton scattering became a new tool in physics. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1927 along with Wilson, who discovered the cloud chamber.



[41] Sir C V Raman 
(1888-1970)

He inspired two Generations of scientists

THE discovery that a photon could give all or part of its energy to an electron (photoelectric and Compton Effect) had firmly established the quantum theory. The Ramen effect was an important step further.
When monochromatic light was scattered by a transparent object, the scattered light was seen to possess, besides the original wavelength, both higher and lower wavelengths.
Why should light come out with increased energy? Because it can both give and take some energy from the molecule. Raman interpreted all aspects of this phenomenon. The molecules in an object can rotate around a fixed axis, and can also oscillate with respect to each other. That is, they have rotational and vibrational energy. The photons can both give and take from this energy, resulting in scattered light having lower or higher energy. An accurate measurement of these changes was now a powerful tool in the hands of physicists and chemists.
  The Raman Effect kept scientists of the next two generations busy.  Many well-known scientists in India are his disciples. Raman also contributed substantially to acoustics and to the perception of colour by the human eye. He was awarded the Noble Prize in 1930.





[42] Peyton Rous 
(1879-1970)

His Discoveries made the blood bank possible

Human blood cannot be stored in bottles! For it coagulates in no time, separating its solid and liquid components, making it useless for transfusion. Peyton Rous discovered a method of storing human blood for a fairly long time. His discovery led to establishment of a blood bank, which was immensely useful in the First World War (1914-18). Timely blood transfusion saved the life of many soldiers.
But Peyton Rous is known more for his research on cancer. He proposed that a virus was responsible for cancer. The million-dollar question was: if cancer is caused by a virus, why is it not contagious like the common cold? Rous conducted some ingenious and intricate experiments to answer this question. He extracted from a tumour some liquid containing the cancer virus, injected it into a fowl and that the fowl developed cancer. That is, cancer could be transmitted! Such experiments are difficult and have to be carried out meticulously.
Research on cancer is important, for cancer and AIDS are the only major diseases still defying scientific advances! Peyton Rous was awarded the Noble Prize for 1966 for achieving this breakthrough by conducting such difficult experiments meticulously. 



[43] Sir Ronald Ross 
(1857-1932)

He discovered how Mosquitoes spread Malaria

MALARIA is a dangerous, killer disease. It is one of the main killers in poor countries. It is usually rampant in mal(bad) areas, that is, in places with stagnant water where mosquitoes can breed. One knew that malaria was caused by mosquitoes. But in the absence of an understanding of ‘how’ and ‘why’, common knowledge is not elevated to ‘science’. The ‘how’ and ‘why’ for malaria were investigated by the British scientist, Sir Ronald Ross. He discovered that a microbe, ‘plasmodium’, causes malaria and that it is spread by the female of Anopheles type of mosquito. Ross demonstrated that a bird injected with a dose of plasmodium suffers from malaria and showed that humans acquire malaria in similar fashion. The plasmodia enter the red blood cells, multiply within the cell, then burst it open and attack other blood cells.
During this process the patient shivers, suffers from high fever every two or three days, becomes weak and may even die.
Ross conducted this work nearly 100 years ago with primitive equipment. His findings were applicable to Brazil and Africa also. He was awarded the Noble Prize for 1902 for his painstaking work.

[44] Camillo Golgi 
(1843-1926)

He discovered the basis of the Nervous system

The discovery of microscopes enabled scientists the world over to study structures of cells. One of the basic problems was understanding how cells prepare proteins. In his studies, Golgi discovered some round objects near the cell’s nucleus. He was able to show that these round objects, subsequently named ‘Golgi bodies’, play an important part in making proteins. Golgi discovered the functions of nerve cells.
He discovered the silver nitrate method of staining the nerve tissue­_- a tool used even today- for studying nerve cells. This stain enabled Golgi to discover a particular type of nerve cell, possessing many short extensions that looked like branches of a tree and which served to connect many other nerve cells. Later he discovered irregular networks of tiny thread-like structures present in nerve cells. These are now known as Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus.
Golgi did all this work using only rudimentary apparatus and simple microscopes. Later he studied malaria and different life cycles in the human body. Golgi was awarded the Noble Prize in 1906 with Raman Y. Cajal Santiago, who was inspired by Golgi and did similar work. 


[45] Emil Adolph Behring
       (1854-1917)

He saved Humanity from Diphtheria

NEARLY one hundred years ago, diseases like diphtheria or tetanus were sure killers. Diphtheria is caused by germs growing in the throat region. They multiply very fast and can block the patient’s breathing system within hours. A diagnosis of diphtheria inevitably meant that death was not far away. Those were days when science and technology had just taken roots. Antibiotics were yet to be discovered. Only primitive microscopes were available to study micro-organisms. It was against these odds that a German scientist, Behring, worked, putting all his skills at stake to save mankind from diphtheria. First, he succeeded in isolating the bacteria causing diphtheria. Second, he discovered a medicine that could act as an antidote against toxins secreted by these bacteria. These are called antitoxins. In fact, Behring was the originator of the very concept of antitoxins.
Antitoxin may be a cure for diphtheria. However, there is hardly any time after the diagnosis of diphtheria is made. In other words, prevention is a must. Behring discovered a vaccine against diphtheria and saved mankind from this deadly disease. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for 1901 for this work.


[46] G N Ramachandran
                               (1922-2001)

He made great discoveries, But Didn’t get a Noble

   STRUCTURE, form and function are always related. Biological molecules are no exception. That is why understanding the structure of biological molecules is so important. But these molecules are so large that unveiling their structure is very difficult. Ramachandran developed the technique of crystallizing these giant molecules to allow their structure to be studied with the help of X-ray analysis.
Ramachandran proposed a triple helical structure for a molecule called collagen, found in muscles. This discovery is considered important as the discovery of the double helix. His theory led to the Ramachandran plot for two connected analogues. This was a turning point in the evolution of the theory of bio-polymer conformation. His plot is used in several branches of life sciences. In fact, it would not be an exaggeration to say the discoveries of Ramachandran laid the foundations of bio-physics. He also established two research institutions for bio-physics.
Ramachandran work has helped in the development of the techniques of CATSCAN and magnetic resonance, techniques that are of great use in medical diagnosis. Recently, he has also contributed to the mathematics of logic and to the development of computer software. It is a pity that he has not been awarded the Noble Prize.


   [47] Carolus Linnaeus
                              (1707-1778)

He invented scientific names for life forms

The variety in life forms is amazing! There is however, a method, a common thread in this diversity. Two life forms that look so different on the face of it do have common features, indicating that they are related. The Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus used this common thread to give a scientific basis for naming and classifying life forms.
Linnaeus identified several levels like family, genus, species, and strain and showed that once all these were clearly identified, the particular life form was pinpointed. His method of naming a life form based on these differences is so accurate and simple that it is used even today. The Latin names sound strange. For example, the ‘touch me not’ plant is called Mimosa Pudica! But the names are accurate! Linnaeus also showed that plants reproduce sexually and identified their parts involved in the process and gave them scientific names. Identifying similarities in these parts helped Linnaeus develop his system.
Though the system evolved later, the basic ideas advocated by Linnaeus helped scientists understand how diversity was created in the course of evolution. Even though a life form is identified today on the basis of its genetic stock, there is little doubt that it was Linnaeus who originated the system of naming and classification.



    [48] Homi J Bhabha
         (1909-1966)

C V Raman called him ‘The modern Leonardo da

HOMI Bhabha, born on October 30, was a scientist, an engineer, an institution builder, an artist and above all, a great human being! He started his career when new elementary particles, new theories and techniques were being discovered. He made vital contributions to these developments. Bhabha, with Heitler, proposed the cascade theory which explains why electrons are found in cosmic rays at sea level. Electrons from outer space can’t penetrate the atmosphere to reach sea-level. Bhabha proposed that high energy electrons passing through matter produce gamma rays, which subsequently produce pairs of electrons and positrons. They, in turn, emit gamma rays, creating a huge shower. This goes on until the energy is exhausted. Bhabha also calculated the cross-section (probability) of scattering of electrons and positrons in a material medium (Bhabha scattering). He said the measured life-time of a meson in flight is affected by the time dilation predicted by Einstein’s theory of relativity.
But Bhabha is known more for the great institutions he built: The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, the entire atomic energy programme and the space programme! 



                          [49] James Watson
                             (1928- )

He put together the double Helix that rules our lives

ONCE, it was known that the entire genetic information is contained in the De.oxy.Ribo. Nucleic Acid (DNA) molecule, it became important to know the structure of DNA. Because structure, form and function are intimately related. Unless the structure of DNA was known, it would not be possible to understand how it functioned and was able to transfer all its genetic information to the daughter cell.
The American geneticist James Watson collaborated with a British scientist Francis Crick on this project.
They sought help from the X-ray spectroscopic pictures obtained by Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.
 Then they constructed the model of DNA using simple threads, wires and small pieces from a metal sheet. They were able to show that the DNA is a double helix. It looks like a spiral staircase consisting of two intertwined chains of sugar-phosphate, with the flat base pairs forming steps between them. This double helical structure of DNA enabled scientists to figure out how cells reproduce and how genetic information is transmitted. The ‘Double Helix’ is one of the striking discoveries of recent times, for which Watson, Crick and Wilkins were awarded the Noble Prize in 1962.



         [50] Paul Ehrlich
          (1854-1915)

He gave us Immunity from many Diseases
 PAUL Ehrlich, the German medical scientist, has contributed handsomely to the science of medicine. He was the pioneer of modern pathology relating to blood examination.  Ehrlich developed the staining process so that the required component could take the stain and stand out under microscope.
          Ehrlich worked hard and extensively, trying to understand how body cells combat bacteria. In the process he was successful in preparing a vaccine against the deadly disease, diphtheria. This vaccine could be used on a mass scale. Even more importantly, he showed that one could acquire immunity from a disease by vaccination, and thus founded the science of immunology.  He developed a medicine called Neosalvarsan, based on arsenic and effective against syphilis. This was the only medicine available against syphilis before antibiotics were discovered.
         Ehrlich discovered medicines that could go mainly to the disease affected tissue and act there. Today this science is known as tissue targeted chemotherapy. In those days these medicines were known as magic bullets ‘I this method is used even today against cancer. All this work, especially his pioneering work on immunology, earned him the Nobel Prize for 1908.  


 
[51] Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet
      (1899-1985) 

  He discovered How the body’s soldiers Identify Enemies

HOW does our body defend itself from harmful bacteria? We are all endowed with a powerful and efficient defence mechanism guarded by lymph cells. However, it was not known how the lymph cells identify enemy bacteria, go to war against them and finally kill them to save us from diseases.
The Australian medical scientist Mactariane Burnet proposed that lymph cells have the ability to distinguish between body cells and alien disease cells. Every cell carries on its outside a pattern of molecules that is specific to that cell. If you can identify these molecules and this pattern, you can identifying a person’s proffession from his uniform.macfarlane Burnel further proposed that the foetus in a mother’s womb does not have this ability right from early stages. It accepts any cell. Up to a certain stages, all cells coming in contact with the lymph system are sort of introduced and accepted as friends!
The distinction begins at a later stage. Many scientists, especially Medawar, conducted several experiments later and showed that Macfarlane Burnet was right. Marfarlane Burnet was awarded the Noble Prize in 1960 along with Peter Medawar.



  [52] Sir Peter Brian Medawar
   (1915-1987) 
           
                
 He discovered how and when  Body’soldiers are trained

IF you implant a piece of skin from one rat on another, the receiver promptly rejects it.”This is not a part of my body. This is something foreign,” says the receiver.Macfarlane Burnet had proposed that a growing baby in the womb doesn’t know the difference. Medawar(british) decided to find out. Some experiments are simple and straightforward. Medawar’s experiment was one such. He extracted a few cells from the spleen of a rat and injected them in the womb of another rat carrying the baby. These were accepted,since the baby had not yet learnt to distinguish its own cells from foreign cells. The growing foetus of rat was now ‘introduced’ to these cells. The baby rat would now accept them as its owm even after fullgrowth. The theory of Burnet was fully vindicated!
The experiment was simple, but it had tremendous implications. Scientists could now study how the defence mechanisms of a newly born baby develops as it grows. Even more importantly, these findings gave considerable impetus to the study of organ transplantation. Sir Peter Medawar was awarded the Noble Prize for 1960 along with Macfarlane Burnet.



[53] S P Agharkar
(1884-1960)

He discovered many types of plants

The young Agharkar was fascinated by plants and animals in the Western Ghats. His hobby led to the discovery of a new jelly fish. His information was accurate and his observation was recorded with meticulous details. Impressed by these qualities, the Indian museum Calcutta offered him a research job. Agharkar used this opportunity to discover many types of plants that still carry his name.
Recognizing his merit, Sir C V Raman recommended him for the Ghosh Professorship at Calcutta. During this time Agharkar went to Germany for higher studies when the First World War (1914-18) broke out, and Agharkar was promptly put behind bars! But Agharkar completed his doctorate even in jail and discovered many types of plants on his return to India.
Agharkar had no hesitation in fighting colonial rule to protect the interests of Indian Science and Indian scientists. He fought with the British Government to stop the transfer, ostensibly for safe keeping, from Sibpur herbarium, Calcutta to the Royal Botanical Gardens in London. Agharkar is also associated in the building of many research institutes. The one in Pune, which now carris his name, was established by him after retirement.




[54] Friedrich Wohler
(1800-1882)

He blew the Myth of ‘Organic Chemistry’

FEW discoveries in science have been made according to a planned time-table. They are the result of man’s increasing stock of knowledge and his improved understanding of nature. Chemistry provides a striking example of his process! Man gradually came to control several chemical reactions, succeeded in isolating many elements and learnt to prepare several compounds, except some compounds found in living systems.
These compounds always contained carbon, besides hydrogen, oxygen , nitrogen and a few other elements. For many decades chemists were unable to prepare these compounds in the laboratory. That’s why they began wondering if a special force called the ‘force of life’ was necessary to make them. On the other hand, there was hardly any understanding of the ‘force of life’. Chemistry of such compounds formed a separate discipline called ‘Organic Chemistry’.
The German chemist Friedrich Wohler solved this puzzle. He succeeded in making urea, found until then only in the urine of animals, from ammonium cynate, which is an organic compound. This was a great breakthrough, because chemists were then able to prepare a large number of organic compounds in the laboratory. Organic chemistry is now called the chemistry of carbon compounds.


[55] Edwin Drake
(1819-1880)

He dilled the first oil well

IT is rightly said the economy of the world floats on oil. Deep wells are drilled to obtain crude oil, rightly called ‘Black gold’. Oil wells have been drilled in the Middle East, in America, in Russia, and in Assam and Bombay High in India. As of today, these wells yield thousands of tons of oil. But who drilled the firs oil?
Before any drillingwas thought of, oil that seeped into the ground was used as medicine!
But as someone proposed that fractional distillation of the oil would yield many useful substances, enterprising industrialists decide not to depend on the little seeping into the ground, but to drill for tapping its very source.
With this impetus, the Seneca Oil Company founded in New York, gave the contract to Edwin L Drake. He erected an engine hose and began drilling.
He struck oil at seventy feet and extacted eight gallons of oil per day. The news spread literally like wild fire. Within five years, several wells were drilled to obtain six thousand barrels of oil per day! But the credit of drilling the first oil well goes to the American engineer Edwin Drake.



[56] Alfred Wegener
(1880-1930)

He showed that continents moved and are on the move

ONCE upon a time, that is, about 150 million years ago, most of the continents were together. They formed one land mass. Then they drilled away. It was only around 60 million years ago that the map of the world resembled the map of today. This was the opinion of several geologists and geographers. But they had hardly any proof, apart from the fact that outlines of continents fitted into one another rather remarkably.
It was Alfred Wegener, the German meteorologist who collected evidence from several disciplines to show that continents have drifted apart. Naturally, his proofs have been based on geography dated 150 million years ago. Mountain ranges that came together if continental outlines are matched, have matching rock systems. The rocks exhibit similar magnetic properties and have fossils that look similar. Deposits from glaciers in matching mountain ranges also show several similarities. Wegener collected information from many parts of the world. He want on expeditions to Antarctica, America, Africa, Australia, India and Madagascar to collect valuable evidence. He died while leading an expedition in Greenland in 1930. Sensitive remote sensing techniques used in satellites have shown that Wegener was right.



[57] Ernst Ruska
(1906-1988)

He invented the Electron Microscope

THE microscope opened up a new world to scientists who could now see bacteria clearly. However, the optical microscope, limited to a magnification of a couple of thousand times, could not show the detailed structure of small bacteria and certainly could not reveal the existence of viruses. The German scientists Ernst Ruska toyed with the idea of harnessing the newly discovered electron to obtain higher magnification.
The wave-length of a fast electron is a few thousand times less than that of visible light. Hence, the electron microscope can give an image magnified by hundred thousand times. However, the techniques were now so different! In place of the lens a magnetic field was needed to focus electrons, and to ‘see’ the image of fluorescent screen was needed. But now a magnification of hundred thousand was possible!
The electron microscope was a great invention, useful in many branches of science. Besides showing details of microbes and structure of big biological molecules, it revealed the existence of viruses, enriching medical science immensely. It helped physicists and chemist in the study of matter. Ruska was awarded the Nobel Prize, though belatedly along with Binning and Rohrer in 1986.



[58] Barbara McClintock
(1902-1992)

She showed jumping Genes an necessary to make Proteins

GENES are an important factor governing genetics. Occurring in chromosomes, they look like beads strung in a thread. However, the sequence does not contain only genes necessary to make the protein. Between useful genes there are others whose functions were not known for a long time. It remained a mystery how only useful genes came together to make the protein.
The mystery was solved by American scientist Barbara McClintock who worked on the genetics of maize. She showed that genes governing the color of a kernel, or many other properties, can be turned on or off! There are genetic elements that work as switches. Moreover, these elements can jump from part of a chromosome to another type of element called the activator. Thus the jumping genes were not unnecessary!
McClintock had a tough time entering areas denied to women in America 80 years ago. Banished to remote corners, she worked on genetics of maize all her life. Only when the importance of her work on jumping genes was realised was her research appreciated. McClintock was awarded Nobel Prize in 1983, 40 years after her work was published.


[59] Henry Ford
(1863-1947)

He made the first Motor Car

ONE of the striking inventions that changed our lives dramatically was that of the internal combustion engine. When energy had to be produced by burning(say) coal externally, engines tended to be large and heavy. Just recall the coal engine of the railways! The internal combustion process, however, could generate as much power in a compact engine. Two inventors made full use of this engine. The Wright brothers flew their tiny plane and Henry Ford produced his automobile.
Henry Ford, the American inventor, made his first car in 1896 and established the Ford Motor Company in 1903. Inventors like the pneumatic tyres and advances in metallurgy also came to his help. Ford was also a great management expert. He thought of producing his car on an assembly line and produced more than 15 million model T-cars in just about 20 years.
Science and technology progress hand in hand. History shows that advances in science make new technology possible, which in turn prompts fresh advances in science. This thumb rule operates in all disciplines of science and technology. Henry Ford’s automobile is salutary and strikingly visible example of his phenomenon!



[60] Allen Cormack
(1924-1998)

He showed the possibility of Cat-Scan

IT is well known that Rontgen discovered X-rays, which are used primarily to investigate bone fracture. Everyone earlier thought X-rays would be of little use to investigate soft matter like tissues and muscles, since the rays would pass through them. But Allen Cormack, educated in South Africa and settled in America, Had other ideas!
Cormack wondered if this was an intrinsic limitation of X-rays, or of the two dimensional pictures that one generally looked at. He proved that if we take pictures of muscles from three dimensions, feed the computer with the pictures of each dimension and ask the computer to generate three-dimensional composite pictures, it should be possible to study even soft matter like a muscle using X-rays. Cormack proved this mathematically while a British engineer Hounsfield, built the apparatus.
Today, Computer Assisted Tomography(CAT-scan) has become an important non-invasive diagnostic tool. It can be used to obtain clear pictures of brain tumour or haemorrhage or of tumours of other internal organs. Computers and X-rays came together to give a second lease or life to millions! The Nobel Prize for 1979 was awarded jointly to Cormack and Hounsfield.



[61] Pierre-Paul Broca
(1824-1880)

His research threw light of the Brain’s activities

A hundred and fifty years ago, little was known about the way the brain functioned. Dissection of dead bodies yielded pretty little information, and it was just not possible to conduct experiments on living human beings. Hence it was known which activity of man was controlled by which part of the brain. Paul Broca, a French surgeon, had several opportunities to treat patients who had sustained brain injuries. He tried to relate injured sites in the brain to specific abilities his patients had fully or partly lost. Collecting a large data of such information, Broca attempted to map physical activities to brain sites. He was able to show that speech is controlled by an area in the left frontal lobe, now called Broca’s area. His research enabled scientists to investigate how man uses his brain in activities related to speech.
But Broca went astray on one point. From his findings that men had larger cranial capacity, he concluded that women were less intelligent than men! He didn’t realize that what matters is brain size(weight) per body weight! But Broca’s reputation was so great that even today, there are people who told that men are more intelligent!

[62] S R Ranganathan
(1892-1972)

He developed the Colon system of classification

CLASSIFYING books in a big library is never easy. There are two requirements. A book should be classified in one and only one way. Second the classification number should give some clue about its contents and enable the reader to trace the book to its correct place. The colon system of classification invented by Ranganathan makes it possible. While the system uses several English alphabets and other signs, the use of colon(:) is its central idea. Ranganathan, a professor of mathematics, accepted librarianship of Madras University as a challenge. In 1924, he was sent to England for higher education. He soon discovered the current methods of classification were not suitable for Indian languages. He said so in no uncertain terms and developed his famous colon system. Ranganathan demonstrated its utility by classifying books in the ship’s library of his return journey.
Ranganathan’s colon system is famous world over. Nearly 2,500 leading libraries in India use it, enabling library staff to provide prompt reference service to users. Even more importantly, Ranganathan elevated library work to status library science where basic research work can be conducted!



[63] Sir Hans Adolf Krebs
(1900-1981)

He discovered how energy is generated from Blood

WE all know that food is necessary for generating energy. But we hardly know what happens to the food we eat, that is, which chemical reactions convert food into energy. Hans Adolf Krebs, born and educated in Germany and settled in Britain, and Lipmann, educated in Germany and settled in America, discovered how this happens.
Krebs discovered that a cycle of chemical reactions called the citric acid cycle, now known as krebs cycle, works continuously in our bodies. Sugars, fats and proteins are broken down in the presence of oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and energy rich compounds. This process as well as many other energy-generating processes in the body depend on the krebs cycle, which was helped us understand the metabolic reaction in our cells. Krebs also discovered the ’urea cycle’ which converts the highly toxic ammonia to non-toxic urea in our bodies.
These discoveries required intricate and time-consuming work. Krebs worked on liver and breast muscles of pigeons to unearth these chemical reactions. It was after extremely hard work that the krebs cycle was discovered. The Nobel Prize for 1953 was awarded jointly to krebs and Lipmann.





[64] Michael Brown
(1941-)

He showed that Heart Attacks can be predicted

A heart attack is not that uncommon these days. However, prevention has always been better than cure! Naturally, medical scientists want to know what changes in the body lead to a heart attack. Can one measure the percentage of some chemicals in the body and predict the possibility of a heart attack?
Yes, said Michael Brown and his workers. They put their finger on the culprit. There are different kinds of fats in the body. Among them, cholesterol is the real culprit. And the low-density lipoprotein (LDL for short) receptor, a protein molecule which ferries particles rich in cholesterol from the blood in the cell, signals the level of cholesterol. As LDL and some other particles in the blood begin to settle inside blood vessels supplying blood to the heart, the patient begins to suffer from a heart condition. An increase in the LDL signals the possibility of a heart attack.
This discovery had important implications. We now understand the metabolism of cholesterol and the role of diet and exercise in controlling it. Brown and his colleague Joseph Goldstein were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for 1985.


[65] Stanley Miller
(1930-2007)

He showed how life could have originated on earth

LIFE does not exist anywhere else in the solar system, and we don’t know if it exits somewhere on a planet orbiting a distant star. As far as we know, only earth supports life. That’s why it is important to know how life originated on earth.
The early atmosphere of earth consisted of methane, ammonia, hydrogen, other such gases and water. Alexander Oparin; a Russian scientist, had suggested that frequent and powerful lightning striking this atmosphere could have led to the formation of life. Miller decided to test this hypothesis. He filled a glass vessel with this primordial soup, sealed it and subjected it for lightning sparks. Soon he found that amino acids had been formed in the vessel. These could have combined further to form proteins and then single-celled life forms.
 Miller’s experiment threw considerable light on the origin of life on earth. It also gave impetus to research on how life evolved, and how intelligence could have originated and evolved. Even more importantly, it showed that questions like these could be tested experimentally. That’s why Miller’s experiment is considered an important milestone in science.



[66] Erwin Schrodinger
(1887-1961)

He described the Hydrogen atom by a wave equation

A close study of the atom created confusion! The elementary particles like electrons were seen exhibiting properties of waves! Whether one would see the particle or the wave nature depended on the nature of the experiment performed! But what does one mean by ‘wave nature’ of a particle? Can one prescribe for these waves, equations like those for light?
The solution was given by a German physicist. Erwin Schrodinger. He chose the hydrogen atom, which has the simplest structure of an electron orbiting a proton. Schrodinger constructed a wave equation, which obeyed quantum mechanics and the described the behaviour of the hydrogen atom. One of the conclusions of this equation was that the electron was in fact, a cloud surrounding the central proton Schrodinger’s equation showed the various shapes the cloud would take as the energy level changes! Later, Dirac introduced the spin and revised these equations.
By this time spectroscopy had advanced considerably. Schrodinger’s equation helped connect lines in atomic spectroscopy with the precise energy levels of the atom Schrodinger was awarded the Nobel Prize jointly with Dirac for the year 1933.

[67] Werner Heisenberg
(1901-1976)

He postulated the principle of uncertainty

SCIENTISTS were bewildered to see the strange behaviour of elementary particles exhibited properties of waves, while in some other experiments, light, that is electromagnetic waves, behaved like particles (photons). How does one explain this? It was a difficult challenge! The German scientist Werner Heisenberg solved this difficult puzzle. He showed that the wave and the nature of sub-atomic particles are two sides of the same coin. Depending on the nature of the experiment, we see one or the other! Heisenberg made ingenious use of matrix algebra to give a firm foundation for his theory. However, Heisenberg is even more famous for yet another discovery.
He showed that for particles of atomic size, it is, in principle, impossible to determine both position and momentum simultaneously with perfect accuracy. I we use light of very small wavelength (high energy) to determine the position of an electron, the impact will make the momentum uncertain. If we use light of very long wavelength (low energy), it’s position will be uncertain. This is the famous principle. Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1932.


[68] Richard Willstatter
(1872-1942)

He isolated and studied Chlorophyll in Plants

WE all know leaves of plants are essentially green. We also know this green color is due to chlorophyll. But the precise structure of chlorophyll and how it helps the process of photosynthesis was not understood properly. The German chemist Willstatter solved this mystery. One of his important discoveries is that magnesium is not an impurity in chlorophyll, but an essential part of it. He studied chlorophyll in detail. The greatness of Willstatter is that he did not depend on commercial chlorophyll, but rediscovered chromatography to isolate it from plants. He showed the remarkable structural similarity between haemoglobin, which gives red color to our blood, and chlorophyll which makes leaves green. He also discovered chlorophyll is of two types, bluish green and yellowish green, and that pigments like carotene are invariably present along with chlorophyll.
Willstatter made many discoveries. He discovered the structure of cocaine, which enabled pharmaceuticals to invent new drugs. He was a pioneer in the use of hydrochloric acid to get sugar from cellulose. He invented a gas mask working on chemical principles to save soldiers from poisonous gases. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1915.


[69] Joseph Black
(1728-1799)

Simple Equipment, Simple Ideas and Great Discoveries

SOME scientists have made discoveries which look simple, but which have important consequences. Joseph black is an excellent example. He discovered carbon dioxide and its properties, ‘latent heat’ and ‘heat capacity’. He found carbon dioxide is acidic and that it supports neither animal life nor combustion.
He discovered that carbonates, on releasing carbon dioxide, become more alkaline. If the gas is mixed with the carbonates again, their alkalinity increases. These experiments, performed meticulously, enabled Black to discover the properties of carbon dioxide. He found that melting ice absorbs heat from the surroundings, but its temperature does not increase. This careful observation enabled Black to discover ‘latent heat’. He also found that equal amounts of various substances require different quantities of heat for raising their temperature by five degrees. This observation led to discovery of ‘heat capacity’.
Black did not have the kind of equipment we have today. But his discoveries had important consequences and paved the way for his illustrious disciple, James Watt, to make further progress. Even today, we find scientists using simple equipment and simple ideas to make important discoveries.



[70] Alfred D Hershey
(1908-1997)

He used a Kitchen Blender to make A Great discovery

A virus consists of its DNA molecule, surrounded by several protein molecules. Knowledge of this structure raised an important question. Is the genetic material contained in proteins or in DNA molecules? The question was solved by American scientist Alfred Hershey and his collaborator Martha Chase. Interestingly, they used very simple equipment: the blender used in our kitchens. Even today, their experiment is known as the ‘Blender Experiment’.
They used the blender to separate DNA from its protein cover. It was that viruses grow in host cells. So Hershey injected the separated proteins into host cells. Nothing happened! They then injected the DNA contents into host cells. Sure enough, the viruses began to multiply. Obviously the genetic material is contained in the DNA molecule. When a virus attacks a host cell, its protein cover remains outside and only the DNA enters the cell. Their simple experiment established this! When ideas are clear, even simple equipment may sometimes be sufficient! Hershey was awarded Nobel Prize in 1969 for this brilliant experiment, jointly with Delbruck and Luria. All three of them are credited for establishing the basis of molecular biology.

[71] V N Shirodkar
(1899-1971)

His Stitch is famous all over the world

REPEATED abortions are the worst thing that can happen to a woman both physically and psychologically. Many woman with a weak uterus simply cannot hold the foetus as it grows and gains weight. They keep suffering from abortions because the muscles of their uterus are weak. Research in this field was, therefore, badly needed. Dr Shirodkar invented an operation to support these weak muscles. It is now known all over the world as Shirodkar’s stitch.
This is the only operation of its kind that can be performed on a pregnant woman. Not only the operation, but the equipment needed for performing it is known after Shirodkar. He was so skilled that the video tapes of operations performed by him on fallopian tubes for family planning are shown the world over! Shirodkar was unmatched for operations for pro-lapse uterus.
He went to London for higher studies in surgery after completing his medical education in India under adverse conditions. He returned to India because he believed strongly in serving his motherland. Thousands of unfortunate women were blessed with motherhood because of his skills and invention. The Government of India honoured him with a ‘Padmabhushan’.

[72] Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)

He Postulated the Existence of the Unconscious Mind

IT was known that the human mind influences body functions. We know that patients with a strong desire to live respond, often remarkably, to medical treatment, while it is difficult to cure patients in a depressed mood. But in the absence of clinical records, it was difficult to formulate a theory. This is precisely what Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician and psychoanalyst, did.
Freud had a large practice and he kept detailed records of his patients. He observed that symptoms of his patients could be related to repressed memories and wishes, especially those related to sex. Surprisingly, memories and wishes repressed even in childhood could be related to sex. The important contribution of Freud is that he postulated the existence of the unconscious mind. He was then able to forward the famous idea that recollected parts of dreams are symbols of the activities of this unconscious mind during sleep, when conscious self-control is suspended.
All of Freud’s ideas are not necessarily valid today. His methods of psychoanalysis have been improved upon substantially. Freud exaggerated the role played by sex. Still, no one can deny him his place as a pioneer in this field.



[73] Yellapragada Subbarao
(1896-1948)

He discovered a dozen Life-Saving Drugs

SIXTY years ago, there were no antibiotics to save people from deadly diseases. When one such disease of the intestine, ‘sprue’, took the life of Subbarao’s brother, he decided to devote his life to discovering life saving drugs. Despite poverty, he went to America with hardly any money, did many odd jobs and completed his medical education.
True to his resolve, Subbarao discovered many life saving drugs. He knew deficiency to vitamin B-12 (Folic Acid) causes several diseases. Subbarao succeeded in making Folic Acid in the laboratory in collaboration with others he discovered Aureomycine. He was the first to discover Gramicidin but didn’t get credit for it as he failed to announce it promptly. Subbarao discovered Methotrexate, a medicine against cancer, and Hetrazan, the cure for elephantiasis.
All students of biochemistry know of Subbarao for his pioneering work on proteins. This is now textbook material. Subbarao’s discoveries were not mere curiosities these medicines could be mass produced. Had he lived a full life, he would have discovered many more medicines. But one wonders why he wasn’t awarded the Nobel Prize!


[74] Hans Albrecht Bethe
(1906-2005)

He showed how Energy is produced in Stars

WE get energy from the sun. It is this solar energy that supports life on earth. But from where does the sun get this energy? It, say, we imagine the sun to be a coal furnace, its fuel would be exhausted in a few centuries. And we know life has existed on earth for at least one billion years!
This puzzle was solved by Bethe, a German physicist now settled in America. He postulated that the energy of the sun is generated in nuclear reactions. Four nuclei of the hydrogen atom (that is, four protons) combine to form the nucleus of helium. However, the mass of a helium nucleus is less than that of four protons. The difference is released as energy according to Einstein’s equation, E=mc^(2). Such a reaction can take place only in the interior of stars where temperature could be of the order of twenty million degrees C.
 The sun is composed mainly of hydrogen in the plasma state. The nuclear reaction converting hydrogen to helium can go on for a few billion years! Hans Bethe was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1967 for this discovery.




[75] Fred Hoyle
(1915-2001)

He proposed Refreshingly Original Hypotheses

CREATION of the universe has always been a puzzle. One hypothesis says eight to nine billion years ago, the entire mass of the universe was concentrated at one point. Then there was a big bang that created elementary particles, chemical elements and stars, in that order. Many scientists are inclined to accept this view.
Fred Hoyle, the British astrophysicist, disagrees. He says the universe has been always like this. The births and death of stars are local fluctuations. Bulk of the universe remains unchanged! Another hypothesis of Hoyle is that large biological molecules like proteins were not made on earth, but were sprinkled on earth’s atmosphere as they passed through tails of comets! Miller’s experiment can create amino acids, but time has not been enough for creation of proteins. His third hypothesis is that viruses too are likewise sprinkled on the atmosphere. Eventually they settle on the surface to bring unknown diseases.
Hoyle’s theories are not universally accepted. But it takes courage to propose theories contradicting established opinions. Hoyle, consistent and honest to his views, has contributed handsomely to astrophysicist. A popular science writer, Hoyle won the prestigious Kalinga award in 1969.


[76] Amedeo Avogadro
(1776-1856)

He proposed that most Substances are Composed of Molecules

AS Dalton postulated his famous theory, an important question arose. How many atoms are there in, say, a spoonful of water, or in an inflated balloon? Remember atoms are not visible to the naked eye or even under a powerful optical microscope! Can one answer this question?
The Italian scientist Avogadro provided a brilliant answer. He postulated that equal volumes of all gases contain an equal number of molecules. Unbelievable! How can the same sack contain an equal number of pumpkins, apples or grains of sand? The clue lies in the fact the actual volume occupied by the molecules is negligible. The volume that we see results from the fact that fast-moving molecules of the gas bang against walls of container and generate pressure. The same number molecules to generate the same pressure. Avogadro made another discovery. He distinguished between atoms and molecules and proposed that most substances are composed of molecules rather than atoms.
Avogadro’s discoveries had major consequences for physics and chemistry. Today we know the significance of Avogadro number 6*103! Moreover, the confusion between atoms and molecules, atomic weight was cleared once for all.


[77] V M Ghatge
(1908-1991)

He built Airplanes with little Industrial Infrastructure

THE world of today is dominated by science and technology. At the time of independence, India had hardly any industrial base. Manufacture of heavy industrial machines, fabrication of motor cars, railway engines or tanks was hardly possible. It was in this era that Ghatge laid the foundations of aircraft industry in India.
Ghatge specialized in aerodynamics and aircraft structures. He was mainly responsible for designing, developing and also test-flying a troop-carrying glider. Ghatge also designed ht-2 trainer aircraft, a two-seater Pushpak aircraft, an ultralight aircraft for training pilots in flying clubs, the krishak aircraft for agricultural purposes and the trainer kiran aircraft. His interest was not limited to the age-old propeller aircrafts. A man with vision, he knew the coming the coming age would be dominated by jet engine capable of giving a thrust of 2,500 pounds.
In a country that is yet to develop a wide, reliable industrial base, building anything sophisticated poses problems. Non-availability of high quality parts, advanced metallurgy, and even accurately machined ball bearings can stall projects. Ghatge built his aircrafts in such an era. He was given a ‘Padmabhushan’.




[78] Charles Darwin
(1809-1882)

He said struggle for survival leads to Evolution of Life.

THE variety of plant and animal life is astonishingly rich. It is a hard job to list various plants and animals and classify them. Has life been always like this? Or has been changing all the time? Some believed life on earth has always been like this. Others opined that organs and characteristics not in use slowly disappear, while those found considerably useful become more pronounced in the next generations!
Darwin had evidence to disagree with both. He found that no two members of the same species are exactly alike. Moreover, there is a continuous struggle for food and survival. A member born with a characteristic that helps it to survive has a better chance of survival. Its progeny survives better and soon replaces others who die. This is how plants and animals have evolved and are evolving even today.
Even the scientific community did not accept this view easily. Darwin was ridiculed in public. But as more evidence accumulated, it became obvious that Darwin was essentially right.
Today it is accepted that the ‘origin of species’ and ‘descent of man’ proposed by Darwin is one of the greatest discoveries of modern times!



[79] Jagdish Chandra Bose
(1858-1935)

Credit for Discovering Radio Communication goes to him.

ONE hundred years ago, it was known that light is electromagnetic waves. Infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, X-rays and gamma rays were soon added to the spectrum. But could you have electromagnetic rays with a wavelength of, say, 10mm? If yes, would they display the same properties as light?
Questions like these remained.
The answers were provided by Jagdish Chandra Bose. He generated electromagnetic waves of a wavelength 5 to 25mm and demonstrated that they show the same phenomena like reaction, double refraction and polarization. His equipment was extremely simple, like pressed jute fibers or books with laminated pages. Bose also found that in animal tissues stimulation produces electrical excitation as well as change in form. Stimulation by light in nerves or retina produces electrical.
He showed even vegetable tissues under stimuli like application of heat, electrical shocks, chemicals, drugs, etc. produce similar electrical responses. Marconi is generally credited with discovery of radio waves. But evidence has come to light to show credit should have gone to Bose. Unfortunately, India and Bose were deprived of a Nobel Prize.



[80] J V Narlikar
(1938-)

He said the universe has always been in a steady state

HOW the universe was created in an intricate question. While many believe in the ‘Big Bang’ theory, astrophysicist like Hoyle, Narlikar and others support the ‘steady state’ theory, proposing that the universe is essentially steady, and that birth and death of stars are local fluctuations.
Proposing a hypothesis is only a beginning. It has to be equipped with the necessary frame-work of mathematics and observational evidence. Narlikar has played a role in generating this frame-work. Of late, the group has proposed a somewhat revised model. The steady state universe undergoes oscillations of expansion and contractions over a short (astronomically) period, while exhibiting expansion over a longer period. Narlikar contributed substantially to this new version. It his own words, ‘It is like the prices of vegetables. They do show rises and falls over 50 years the prices have been rising’.
Narlikar has been a champion of popularizing science. He has written stories, novels, even serious books, in a simple language. He has established the Inter University center for Astronomy and Astrophysics for research workers in the field. A recipient of many awards, Narlikar’s most prestigious award is the frame and immense popularity he enjoys.

[81] A P J Abdul Kalam
(1931-)

He catapulated India into the Space age

ONE of the laboratories of NASA in America prominently displays soldiers using rockets in a battle. Curiously enough, these soldiers are Indians because the scene is from Tipu’s battle against the British. Akter the battle of Turukhanahally, the British captured more than 700 rockets and 900 subsystems of rockets! Would Tipu’s dream ever become a reality?
Abdul kalam did it. Starting from nothing, he and his team successfully built and tested missiles like Agni, Prithvi, Akash, Trishul and nag. Missiles of all types, including the long-range (5000 km) missile, bear eloquent testimony to his engineering skills and creativity. Equally important, under his able and inspired leadership, India has developed technology for multistage rockets to put an indigenously built satellite in orbit. India can now sit with America and Russia without awe!
The contribution of Abdul Kalam stab=nd out on several counts. Kalam and his team had to develop all this technology indigeneously, since rocket technology is a very closely guarded defence secret. Kalam had the confidence to declare the launch well in advance and show it ‘live’ on Doordarshan. The government of India honoured him with a Bharat Ratna.


[82] Guglielmo Marconi
(1974-1937)

He is created with the discover of radio-Communication

PROGRESS of human civilization depends on how fast and accurate its communication system works. Covering the distance on foot, on horseback, sending letters in a motor car or by a railway train, sending telegrams and radio signals are milestone in this in this progress. The Italian scientist, Marconi, is credited with the last one.
Soon after Marconi learnt about the discovery of electromagnetic waves of long wavelengths, he tried to convert them into electrical signals. He succeeded in sending and receiving signals across distances. Marconi began by sending signals across the English channel and soon succeeded in establishing communication to Australia. He used the apparatus invented by the French scientist Branley for converting electromagnetic waves into electric current. Later Marconi succeeded in establishing short wave communication.
Marconi’s invention had important consequences. Communication could now be with the speed of light. The world began to shrink. Radiowaves, like light, travel in straight lines and could not be expected to overcome impasses imposed by the earth’s curvature. However, they are reflected by the ionosphere on top of earth’s atmosphere. Strangely, its existence was yet to be discovered! Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1909.

[83] Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)

His theory of Relativity has earned him Great Fame

EINTEIN was the most brilliant scientist this century. Photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, Bose-Einstein statistics are only some of his great discoveries. While is awarded the Nobel prize for photo-electric effect, his name has always been equated with the theory of relativity. The two have almost become synonyms!
Einstein postulated that the velocity of light in vacuum is maximum and also constant. Nothing can travel faster than that. Also, the velocity of light is independent of the velocity of its source. As a result of these and other postulates, the mass of a body moving with speeds comparable to that of light increases as it moves faster. Also the time dilates. As a consequence of relativity, mass and energy are interconvertible according to the famous equation E=mc^2. Einstein showed that a massless ray of light passing close to the massive sun is attracted towards it. Confirmation of this was obtained during the total solar eclipse in 1919.
Newton’s laws are still valid in daily life and in engineering. Einstein’s relativistic equations are needed when one deals with atomic particles or astrophysics. It is fortunate that Einstein postulated relativity just when atomic particles were being discovered.

[84] Amartya Sen
(1933-)

He asserted that economics is a ‘Social’ science

CAN economics be studied totally objectively, ignoring compulsions of social needs and aspirations? Many economics opine that any science, including economics, must be studied objectively. Amartya Sen disagrees, and proposes a somewhat different economics, keeping social aspects at the centre, especially for developing countries.
For example, he asserts famines are basically artificial and man-made. Sen proposes that relief measures be aimed at making people self-reliant and capable of withstanding the next disaster on their own. Relief should not degenerate into giving out doles to reduce the suffering on hand. Sen claims the concept and measurement of ‘poverty line’ can only be subjective. The absence of a properly enclosed bathrooms can drive a middle-class. Westerner crazy, whereas his counterpart in India will think nothing of it! Even the meaning of welfare state has a strong social context!
Sen does not stop at giving descriptive examples. He provides methods for measuring poverty lines, explains pitfalls of studying economics only from a Western angle, and shows one can opt for one for several possibilities existing between complete nationalization and total privatization. Sen was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1998 for giving new dimensions to economics.


[85] Jean Henri Dunant
(1828-1910)

Founder of the International Red Cross

HAVE you seen ambulances with loud sirens speeding past other vehicles? They bear a red cross. These vehicles have the right of the way. Naturally! Ambulances are trying to reach sick and the wounded, as fast as possible, to the nearest hospital for immediate medical treatment. ‘Red Cross’ was conceived and founded by the Swiss humanitarian, Jean Henri Dunant. He was moved by the suffering of soldiers in the bloody battle of Solferino, which led to 40,000 casualties. Dunant participated in relief work and also proposed in his book ‘Memories of solferino’ that an international agency be set up to care for the sick and wounded without consideration of nationality, race, cast or creed. Only humanitarian considerations should prevail! His suggestion was brought into reality by the Geneva convention. He also founded the Young Men’s Christian Association, with branches all over the world!

International Red Cross now operates on a much wider scale. Apart from wounded soldiers, it provides relief to victims of natural disasters like floods, earthquakes and famine. Jean Henri Dunant was awarded the Nobel Prize for peace in 1901.





[85] Hans Geiger
(1882-1945)

He made Prospecting for radioactive material easy

THE discovery of radioactivity raised an important problem. How does one detect the presence of radioactive material? Prospecting for minerals containing radioactive materials was equally important. The photographic plate is not very useful for this purpose. The process of exposing and developing plates is cumbersome. Besides, one risks the possibility of getting entire stock fogged!
The difficulty was solved by two German scientists, Geiger and Muller. A glass tube fitted with a metallic wire along its axis is filled with a certain mixture of gases at low pressure. High voltage is supplied to the wire. As high velocity particles or gamma rays from radioactive material enter the tube, they ionize the gas. Ions thus produced are attracted to opposite electrodes, setting up a feeling current. Amplifying and measuring this current serves to detect and assess the strength of radioactive material around.
The Geiger counter is easy to operate and carry. The tube is fitted in a metal casing of the size of an electric torch and the size of an electric torch and the rest of the system is fitted in a box that can be carried easily. One can carry it anywhere and prospect for radioactive material.


[86] Sir Francis Galton
(1822-1911)

He found no two Human Beings have the same Fingerprints

FINGERPRINTS enable us to apprehend thieves. Illiterate people give the impression of their left hand’s thumb rule as their signature. All this makes sense because the British scientist Galton discovered that no two individuals have the same fingerprints. Measuring human beings was a passion for Galton. He measured their chest, waist and even the girth of their arms. His subjects were schoolchildren, prisoners, and inmates of lunatic asylums!
Galton’s achievements were not limited to finger prints. He invented several instruments to plot meteorological data and was successful in charging weather over vast areas. He was instrumental in establishing the meteorological office and also the National Physical Laboratory. He was curious to know if intelligence is inherited and tried to assess the effect of environment on development. For this purpose, he invented methods to measure intelligence in 9,000 subjects. Galton is considered the founder of eugenics, a term he coined.
Galton’s data was large and had to interpreted statistically. He discovered several methods in statistics, including correlational calculus. He is often called the father of modern statistics. Galton toured the uncharted African continent, then known as the black continent, and collected valuable information.

[87] Anil Kakodkar
(1943-)

His superb engineering skills made the Bomb possible

In May 1998, India exploded the series of nuclear bombs at Pokhran. In a flash the world knew about India’s ability to explode indigenously developed atom bombs, hydrogen bombs and low-yield nuclear devices that can be used in a battlefield.
Anil Kakodkar, director of BARC, played a significant role in all these developments, starting from designing and building the Dhruva reactor, which makes most of our plutonium. The plutonium core used in atomic weapons may be as small as cricket ball, but getting the material, machining it to perfection and setting up a reliable triggering mechanism requires a combination of basic sciences and the most sophisticated engineering ability. The hydrogen bomb also demands high pressure physics and engineering. Pits have to be made with skill and care to ensure that radiation does not come above ground and affect the safety of villages around. Achievement of all this is a tribute to kakodkar’s abilities, since they involved closely guarded defence secrets, not available on sale! It is only an engineer plus scientist like kakodkar, bent on doing something new and on doing it to perfection, who can achieve this glory!


[88] Brian David Josephson
(1940-)

He found Electrons can make a Tunnel and go through it

CODUCTORS let an electric current flow through them, insulators stop the current from flowing, while superconductors allow electricity to flow without offering any resistance, but only at extremely low temperatures. Semiconductors let currents pass only under special circumstances. Obviously inserting an insulator in an electric circuit will stop the current at once, thought many. Not really, said the British scientist Josephson. A strange phenomenon takes place if you insert a very thin film of an insulator in an electric circuit. Electrons tunnel through the thin film and the circuit is not broken! Electrons seem to be capable of building these tunnels to pass through them. Esaki of Japan had reported similar tunneling of semiconductors and Giaever (USA) had seen tunneling occur in superconductors. But it was Josephson who applied quantum mechanics and explained how the phenomenon takes place.
Josephson’s discovery led to the development led to the famous Josephson junction, which is used in large and complex integrated circuits to speed the passage of signals by electron tunneling. These chips are a thousand times faster than ordinary silicon chips. Josephson’s discovery revolutionized solid state devices, besides giving new insights into solid state theory. He won the Nobel Prize in 1973.

[89] Raj Reddy
(1934-)

He is The King of Artificial Intelligence

COMPUTERS are often compared with the human brain, but in reality the most advanced computer can only be compared with the brain of an earthworm! A computer can handle intricate calculations involving big numbers, but it can hardly think logically learn from its own experience, and totally unseen problems. This still remains the prerogative of the human brain!
Scientists are typing to build such a computer. In other words they are in search of artificial intelligence. The leading figure in this field is Raj Reddy, dean, Computer Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, USA. Reddy created a new discipline: “Inter-relation between man and technology.” He is also busy trying to build computers capable of recognizing and executing commands given by a human voice! His dream is to build computers that can be linked with any other in the world to generate a digital library.
When Reddy succeeds, you can get excellent education at your doorstep. His authority in the field of information technology has been recognized the world over. Francois Mitterrand, former President of France, bestowed on him ‘La Legion d’Honneur (Legion of Honour), the highest award in france!


[90]Jonas Salk
(1914-1995)

He aimed to Eradicate Polio

WE have seen many children disabled due to polio. These unfortunate victims are crippled for life. While nothing much can be done after the attack, a person can be immunized by two oral doses of polio vaccine. Chances of polio striking babies thus immunized are extremely low.
The polio vaccine was developed by Jonas Salk, an American physician and microbiologists. Polio is caused by a virus. The problem was to prepare a vaccine containing these viruses to teach our body to make anti-bodies against polio. Salk collected many samples from spinal fluids of polio patients, cultured them to obtain polio viruses, and treated them with formaldehyde to destroy the ability of this virus to inflict polio. He had to work hard along these lines until he developed a safe vaccine.
Salk had ‘courage based on confidence, and confidence based on experience’ to administer this vaccine to himself and his family. Polio vaccine is now easy to administer. No injection is necessary; just a few drops have to be given orally.
Salk refused to patent his vaccine. “My research is for people! Could you patent the Sun?” he asked.


[91] Glenn Seaborg
(1912-1999)

He discovered Transuranic elements

AS almost all chemical elements were discovered, it was believed the span of elements was limited from hydrogen, the lightest to uranium, the heaviest. Glenn Seaborg, the American chemist, demonstrated the existence of transuranic elements. He also studied their chemical properties and showed they fit beautifully in Mendeleev’s periodic table!
It was known that bombarding uranium with neutrons leads to fusion. Seaborg selected proper energy for the bombarding neutrons and obtained the next element, plutonium, with an atomic number 93. This was the first transuranic element to be produced in the laboratory. The yield, however, was only microscopic. Moreover most of these transuranic elements are unstable, making their detection and isolation extremely difficult. Even then Seaborg and his team discovered nine out of the first 13 transuranic elements to be discovered. He also showed plutonium could be used as fissionable material in atomic reactors.
Seaborg’s work led to the discovery of several radioactive isotopes useful in diagnosing and treating diseases. His work also helped in obtaining them in large quantities. Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1951 and element no 106 was given his name Seaborgium!

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[92] Thomas Robert Malthus
(1766-1834)

He was the Pioneer in Studying the Population Problem

WHY do populations increase? Why do they stop increasing? Economics were earlier pinning to find out reasons behind waxing and waning of populations. Remember, in those days, techniques for surveying were primitive, statistical methods were not yet developed and economics was in its infancy!
Malthus, a British economist sought answers to these questions. Population implies mouths to be fed, which increases rapidly, that is in geometric proportion. Resources, on the other hand increases slowly, that is in arithmetic proportion. In his ‘Essay on the Principle of Population,’ Malthus argues that when resources can no longer support population, natural checks like famine, epidemics, floods, earthquakes, war, etc. control the population to prevent the situation from going out of hand. Malthus advocated population control and proposed methods like moral restraint and increasing the age of marriage.
Malthus is no longer accepted totally. Rise of technology has led to improved methods of agriculture, and to an increase in cultivable land. Man the technologist has been able to increase resources much faster than the arithmetic proportion. But Malthus was the pioneer in studying this question. Equally importantly, his thoughts influenced Darwin to seek the connection between struggle for survival and evolution.


[93] Anders Celsius
(1701-1744)

He invented the Thermometer which we use every day

ACCURATE measurements are extremely important in science. It is equally important standardize the measuring tools to ensure uniformity in scientific literature. That is why measurements of time distance, weight and many other physical entities have been standardized over the past hundred years. The Swedish scientist Anders Celsius standardized the measurements of temperature. He proposed that two points, which normally do not change, should be used as fixed points. He chose the melting of ice and the boiling of pure water at normal pressure as such fixed points. Curiously enough, Celsius chose the boiling of water to be zero degrees Celsius and the melting of ice as 100 degrees Celsius! His disciple Martin Stromer inverted this scale eight years later! Celsius filled mercury in a glass capillary tube to prepare his thermometer. For all practical purposes, this is the scale used all over the world.
Achievements of Celsius were not limited to making a standard thermometer. He studied several subjects. He gave conclusive proof to Issac Newton’s idea that the earth was flattened at the poles. He pioneered attempts to gauge the magnitudes of stars in the constellation of Aries, studied the falling water level of the Baltic sea and built Sweden’s first observatory at Upsala.
                                                                                                                                          

[94] John Logie Baird
(1888-1946)

He invented Television using Scrap Material


TODAY we see programmes from all over the world on our TV screen. Several of these programmes are telecast ‘live’. All this had been made possible because of unprecedented progress in electronics. Now there is little doubt that our horizons are widening and the world is shrinking fast!
TV was invented by Baird a Scottish electrical engineer, when electronics was still in its infancy. The young Baird was pinning to invent a mechanism for transmitting and receiving pictures. Baird was so resourceful that in less than twelve years he succeeded in putting together such a mechanism, using scrap material from his attic! He applied successfully for a patent! Later he invented the color TV and managed to telecast programmes across the Atlantic. Baird also invented video recording and a kind of fax machine. That he could achieve all this when electronics was yet to blossom fully speaks volumes of his resourcefulness. Baird was a great inventor. He invented fibre-optics. He was able to conceive and put together the RADAR ahead of many others. He pioneered ‘noctovision,’ a system for seeing at night using infrared rays.

[95] Christian Barnard
(1922-2001)

He performed the first Heart Transplant

ORGAN transplant to replace a damage one is not easy. The human body rejects anything foreign, even a foreign tissue! Moreover, heart transplant is the most difficult of transplants. You can donate one of your two kidneys, but you have only one heart! Obviously the surgeon is compelied to choose a healthy heart within minutes of its donor’s death and transplant it almost immediately to a waiting, needy patient.
This difficult operation was performed by the South African surgeon Christian Barnard. He performed this transplant on a patient at Groote Schour hospital in Cape Town. The operation was successful but the patient died eighteen days later of double pneumonia. The disease was probably contracted as a result of immune-suppressive medicines administered to him to prevent his body from rejecting the foreign heart.
Heart transplants are not performed routinely, even though they have become some-what safer. It is refreshing to know that within four years of Barnard’s first heart transplant, Dr G B Parulekar performed a successful heart transplant at Mumbai’s KEM hospital. Had he received  adequate resources and timely support, the honour of performing the first heart transplant could well have come to India.

[96] Linus Carl Pauling
(1888-1946)

He understood the Nature of The Chemical Bond

WITH the unveiling of atomic structure, scientists began to understand how and why atoms acquire chemical properties. Obviously, electrons orbiting the nucleus decide chemical properties. But this mix of classical and quantum ideas could not explain fully the nature of chemical bond. The American chemist Linus Pauling achieved this breakthrough. He went beyond the well-known ionic bond where the positively charged ion of one element gets bonded with the negatively charged ion of another element, or the covalent bond where two atoms share their electrons co-operatively. Pauling proposed his now-famous concept of hybridization where some electrons from (say) d, s, or p orbitals hybridise to generate a bond! His book, ‘The Nature of Chemical Bond’ is respected like the Bible.
Crick and Watson, trying to figure out the structure of DNA molecule, depended on it for working out bond-lengths. Pauling was also a champion of medical uses of Vitamin-C. He was awarded Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1954 and another one for peace in 1952. He is the only individual to get two Nobel Prizes, both unshared!


[97] William Thomson
(Lord) Kelvin
(1824-1907)

He Discovered the Absolute Scale of Temperature

SCIENTIFIC progress depends critically on the availability of reliable and accurate measurements. The Celsius scale solved this problem for phenomena related to daily life. However, the melting and boiling points of water are not universal constants. Moreover, the Celsius scale has no theoretical basis. A temperature scale with a firm theoretical basis was proposed by an Irish scientist William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin.
He noticed that the temperature of a body was related to the motion of molecules. Higher temperature implies more vigorous motion. He proposed absolute zero to be the temperature where all molecular stops completely. This was Kelvin’s absolute zero or minus 273 o C. Kelvin proposed that on this scale water freezes at 273o Absolute and boils at 373o A (or Kelvin). Obviously, attaining absolute zero is impossible! In scientific literature and in theoretical equations one uses absolute temperatures.
Lord Kelvin’s discoveries were not limited to this scale of temperature of his work in thermodynamics. He developed faraday’s ideas to present a theory of magnetism. He also built several instruments for measurement of electricity, invented an improved compass, a tide gauge, and simpler methods of fixing a ship’s position at sea. He is, however, remembered for absolute scale of temperature.


[98] Dimitri Mendeleev
(1834-1907)

He found All Chemical Elements and formed an Ordered system

THE universe has 32 stable and many more unstable chemical elements. It is a formidable job to remember chemical properties of all these elements. But Russian scientist Dimitri Mendeleev could see a pattern. If elements with similar properties were arranged to form one group, and elements were arranged according to weights like cards in a game of patience, one could get a periodic tables of elements. It looks simple but it is a great discovery. If the 60 odd elements known by them were arranged like in a game of patience, one variably got a mismatch! But Mendeleev pinned his faith in chemical properties, ignoring atomic weights which were being revised constantly. He left a ‘gap’ at the place of mismatch and moved the erring element to the next column until it fitted. He had to leave several gaps, all of which were filled correctly by elements discovered later. Gallium, scandium and germanium were discovered in his life time!
Atomic structure was yet to be discovered. Isotopes were unknown. Still the Mendeleev the chemist, prepared his famous periodic table. All the gaps were filled later with the little adjustment. This is called vision!


[99] Har Gobind Khorana

(1922-2011)
He Synthesized the First Wholly Artificial Gene
WE know that entire genetic material is contained in DNA. Experiments had shown that genes govern protein structure. However, it was still a wonder as to how this complexity is conveyed in just a few ‘alphabets’. In other words, the genetic code had not yet been broken!
The task was accomplished by Khorana. He was able to show how only four nucleic acids could generate a genetic code. He used his skill in chemistry to synthesize an artificial gene with just one ‘alphabet’. He injected it in the mechanism that makes proteins and showed that it generated an elementary protein! He also showed a pattern of three nucleotides – a triplet – specifies a particular amino acid. Another of his discoveries was that some of the triplets serve as ‘punctuation marks’ in the code Khorana also synthesized the gene in the retina responsible for converting light into electrical signals.
Khorana’s work helped crack the genetic code. He proved that three ‘alphabets’ form a codon. For his achievement, Khorana was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1968 along with fellow American marshall Nirenberg, who did similar work.


[100] Johannes Gutenberg
(1398-1468)



He Invented Printing using Movable Metal Type

FIVE centuries ago, wooden blocks with figures and letters carved on them were used for printing. Since the same block could not be refused, every page required a separate block, making printing cumbersome and expensive. Only the very rich could afford books at the time!
Gutenberg, a German technologist, invented a way out. He cast a movable metal type, one for every character. All the required types were set in lines held firmly in a tray. An ink roller applied ink and impressions were obtained on paper. The types could be pulled out and re-used for setting the next page. A large press could handle several trays at a time, printing many pages simultaneously. Gutenberg used this method to inaugurate the new era by printing several copies of the Holy Bible.
Gutenberg’s movable type was one of the most important inventions. It gave a boost to literacy and to the spread of knowledge.
Gutenberg’s printing press was also important in making the Renaissance possible! A similar process happened in India around a hundred years ago. Even today, with powerful electronic media gaining strength every day, the print medium retains its central place. We are reading this column thanks to him!



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